PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


Purchased  by  the  Hammill  Missionary  Fund. 


Division 
Section 


JJ  J  A  ■ 


Ntiuiber 


Digitized  by 

• 

the  Internet  Archive 

in  2015 

https://archive.org/details/madagascarbeforeOOsibr_0 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE   THE  CONQUEST 


• 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE 
CONQUEST 


THE  ISLAND,  THE  COUNTRr,  ^ND  THE  PEOPLE 


WITH  CHAPTERS  OX  TRAVEL  AND  TOPO- 
GRAPHY, FOLK-LORE,  STRANGE  CUSTOMS 
AND  SUPERSTITIONS,  THE  ANIMAL  LIFE 
OF  THE  ISLAND,  AND  MISSION  WORK 
AND  PROGRESS  AMONG  THE  INHABITANTS 


BY  THE 

REV.  JAMES  SIBREE,  F.R.G.S. 

Missionary  of  the  LM.S. 

AUTHOR  OF  "the  GREAT  AFRICAN  ISLAND,"  "a  MADAGASCAR  BIBLIOGRAPHY," 
."the  birds  of  MADAGASCAR,"  ETC. 


WITH  MAPS   AND    NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS 
FROM  PHOTOGRAPHS 


NEW  YORK 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO. 

LONDON 

T.  FISHER  UNWIN 

1896 


PREFACE. 


This  is  my  third  book  on  Madagascar,  and  probably  some  of 
my  readers  may  be  disposed  to  ask  what  more  I  can  have  to 
say  about  the  country  or  the  people.  The  following  pages  form 
a  reply  to  such  a  question,  and  it  may  be  further  said  in  explana- 
tion that  it  is  now  twenty-six  years  since  the  publication  of  my 
first  book  I  and  sixteen  since  the  second  2  was  issued  ;  and  that 
since  the  latter  of  those  dates  much  new  information  has  been 
accumulating  with  regard  to  the  physical  geography,  geology, 
fauna  and  flora,  and  ethnology  of  Madagascar. 

During  the  thirty-two  years  that  I  have  been  connected  with 
this  great  island,  I  have  been  continually  collecting  information 
and  writing  about  it,  chiefly  in  the  Antananarivo  Annual,  a  pub- 
lication issued  every  year  in  the  capital,  as  well  as  in  the 
Proceedings  of  various  English  societies  ;  but  as  these  papers 
are  only  known  to  a  limited  class  of  readers,  I  have  thought 
that  at  this  time,  when  public  attention  is  being  again  called  to 
Madagascar,  the  information  given  in  the  following  pages  would 
be  interesting  to  the  public  generally.  They  will,  I  trust,  give 
to  many  a  clearer  notion  of  what  kind  of  place  this  country  is, 
and  what  sort  of  people  they  are  who  inhabit  it. 

I  here  express  my  obligations  to  my  friend,  M.  Alfred 
Grandidier,  for  permission  to  translate  and  reproduce  much 
that  is  valuable  from  his  numerous  publications  referring  to 
Madagascar  in  the  French  language. 

^  'Madagascar  and  its  People  (R.T.S.,  1870). 
The  Great  African  Island  (Triibner,  1880). 


vi 


PREFACE. 


I  have  also  to  thank  my  friends,  Mr.  J.  Parrett  and  Dr.  S.  B. 
Fenn,  for  being  able  to  reproduce  several  photographs  which 
adorn  these  pages. 

And,  lastly,  my  grateful  thanks  are  due  to  the  Rev.  W. 
E.  Cousins  for  his  great  kindness  in  correcting  the  proofs,  so 
far  at  least  as  Malagasy  words  are  employed.  It  has,  of  course, 
been  a  disadvantage  that  I  could  not  personally  revise  the 
proofs  when  the  work  was  passing  through  the  press,  and  I 
must  plead  that  in  excuse  for  any  faults  that  may  be  dis- 
covered by  the  critical  reader.  The  publisher  has  done  his 
best  to  minimise  the  difficulties  necessarily  involved  in  writing 
a  book  in  Madagascar  and  publishing  it  in  England. 

J.  s. 

London  Missionary  Society's  College, 
Antananarivo,  Madagascar. 
November  30,  1895. 

Note. — All  through  this  book  Malagasy  words  are  accented 
on  the  syllables  which  should  be  emphasised.  And  if  it  is 
borne  in  mind  that  the  vowels  have  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
same  sound  as  in  Italian,  and  that  the  consonants  do  not  differ 
much  in  sound  from  those  in  English,  except  that  g  is  always 
hard,  s  always  a  sibilant  and  not  like  z,  and  j  is  like  dj\  there 
need  be  no  difficulty  in  pronouncing  Malagasy  words  with  a  fair 
amount  of  accuracy. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

FROM  COAST  TO  CAPITAL  :     NOTES  OF   A   JOURNEY   FROM  MA- 
HANORO  TO  ANTANANARIVO   

Various  routes  to  interior— Mahanoro — Madagascar  travelling— 
Filanjana  or  palanquin — Native  bearers — Native  villages — Betsimisaraka 
Cemetery — Canoe  travelling — Canoe  songs — Tropical  vegetation — 
The  Travellers'-tree — Scenery — Native  houses  and  arrangements — A 
tiring  Sunday's  journey — Butterflies  and  birds— A  village  congrega- 
tion— Forest  scenery  and  luxuriance — Romantic  glens  and  glades — 
Uplands  and  extensive  prospects — In  Imerina  at  last — Over  old 
haunts  in  forest — Mantasoa  and  its  workshops — Native  bridges — 
War  preparations — A  hearty  welcome  to  the  capital. 

CHAPTER  n. 

IMERINA  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCE  :   ITS  PHYSICAL  FEATURES  AND 
VILLAGE  LIFE  

Recent  advances  in  knowledge  of  Madagascar  -geography — Recent 
journeys — Tamatave — Mode  of  travelling — Coast  lagoons — Scener}- — 
Forest  and  climbing  plants — Ankay  Plain — Upper  forest  belt — Ime- 
rina or  Ankova  "  Home  of  the  Hova " — Mountains  and  prominent 
peaks — Bare  uplands — Geology  and  colour  of  soil — Extinct  volcanoes 
— ^Watershed  of  island — Lakes — Population — Sacred  towns — Village 
fortihcations — Maps  of  Imerina — An  Imerina  village — Ancient  villages 
on  high  hills — Hova  houses  and  arrangements — Ox-fattening  pits — 
Native  tombs — Trees — Hova  children  and  games — ^Village  chapels 
and  schools. 

CHAPTER  HI. 

ANTANANARIVO,  THE  CAPITAL  :  ITS  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS,  MEMORIAL 
AND  OTHER  CHURCHES,  AND  RELIGIOUS  AND  CHARITABLE 
INSTITUTIONS         .  .   

Scenery  around  the  capital — Its  picturesque  situation — Rugged  streets 
and  paths — Houses    and  other    buildings — Recent  introduction  of 

vii 


viii 


CONTENTS. 


bricks — Royal  palaces — Faravohitra — Ancient  gateway — Sacred  stones 
— Weekly  market  of  Zoma — Amusements — L.M.S.  churches  and 
religious  institutions  —  Ambatonakanga  Church — Other  memorial 
churches — "  Mother  churches  "  and  districts — Chapel  Royal — Sunday 
observance — Colleges  and  school-buildings — Dispensaries  and  hos- 
pitals— Other  missions — Extent  of  Christian  work  carried  on — Civi- 
lising work  of  L.M.S.  mission — Population — Plans  of  the  capital — 
Antananarivo  the  heart  of  Madagascar. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR  :  NOTES  ON  THE 
CLIM.A.TES,  AGRICULTURE,  SOCIAL  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  PEOPLE, 
AND  VARIED  ASPECTS  OF  THE  MONTUS  .... 

The  seasons  in  Madagascar — Their  significant  names — Prospect  from 
summit  of  Antananarivo — The  great  rice-plain — Springtime  :  Septem- 
ber to  October — Rice-planting  and  rice-fields — First  crop — Trees  and 
foliage — "  Burning  the  Downs  " — Birds — Summer  :  November  to  Feb- 
ruary— Thunderstorms  and  tropical  rains — Effects  on  roads — Rain- 
fall— Hail — Magnificent  lightning  effects — Malagasy  New  Year — 
Native  calendar — Royal  bathing — Conspicuous  flowers — Aloes  and 
agaves — Christmas  Day  observances — Uniformity  in  length  of  days — 
Native  words  and  phrases  for  divisions  of  time — and  for  natural 
phenomena — Effects  of  heavy  rains — Wild  flowers  of  Imerina— 
Autumn  :  March  and  April — Rice  harvest — Harvest  thanksgiving  ser- 
vices— Mist  effects  on  winter  mornings — Spiders'  webs — Winter  :  May 
to  August — Winter  the  dry  season — Ancient  villages  and  fosses — 
Hova  tombs — Great  markets — Aspects  of  nightly  sky — Epidemics  in 
cold  season — Vegetation. 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  CRATER  LAKE  OF  TRITRIVA  :  ITS  PHYSICAL  FE.A.TURES  AND 
LEGENDARY  HISTORY  ;  AND  THE  VOLCANIC  REGIONS  OF  THE 
INTERIOR  

Ancient  volcanoes  of  Central  Madagascar — Hot  springs — Fossil  re- 
mains in  limestone  deposits — Crater  lake  of  Andraikiba — Tritriva 
Lake — Colour  of  water — Remarkable  appearance  of  lake — View  from 
crater  walls — Mr.  Baron  on  volcanic  phenomena — Ankaratra  Moun- 
tain— Ancient  crater — Lava  streams — Volcanic  rocks — Recent  character 
of  volcanic  action. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

AMBATOVORY  :  ONE  OF  OUR  HOLIDAY  RESORTS  IN  MADAGASCAR  ; 
WITH  NATURAL  HISTORY  AND  OTHER  NOTES  .         .         .  . 

The  rest-house— Amboniloha  Hill— A  deserted  village— Ambatovory 
rock  —  Woodland  paths— Birds  —  Lizards  and  chameleons  —  Grass- 


CONTENTS. 


ix 


hoppers — Protective  colouring — Warring  colours — Beetles — Ants  and 
ant-nests — Ball  insects — Spiders — Butterflies — King  butterfly — Solitary 
wasps — Wasp  nests — Angavokely  Mountain — Extensive  prospect. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES  IO9 

Mixed  nomenclature  of  coast  and  interior  places — Early  European 
influence — Arab  and  Portuguese  names — Influence  of  fady  or  taboo 
— Name  of  Madagascar — Mountain  names — The  name-prefixes  An- 

and  Am  Height  and  prominence — Mysteiy  and  dread — Size — Words 

meaning  rock  and  stone — Animals  and  birds — Personal  names  for 
hills — Grandeur  of  mountain  scenery  —  River  names  —  Descriptive 
epithets — Lake  names — Town  and  village  names — Dual  names — 
Names  of  capital  and  its  divisions — Town  names  from  natural 
features — forests  —  river  banks  —  from  animals  —  Personal  —  Tribal — 
Province  names — Appendix  on  Betsileo  place-names. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  CONNECTED  WITH  CHIEFTAINSHIP 
AND  ROYALTY  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY  ;  AND  NOTES  OF  THE 
SIGN  AND  GESTURE  LANGUAGE  I49 

The  Betsileo — Special  words,  or  "  chief's  language " — in  Malayo- 
Polynesian  languages — for  Malagasy  sovereigns — Illness  and  death 
— Burial  —  Mourning  —  Diseases  —  Royal  servants  —  Royal  houses — 
Chief's  words  among  Betsileo — for  family  of  chiefs — for  elderly 
chiefs — for  chiefs  old  and  young — Extreme  honour  paid  to  chiefs 
— Fady  or  taboo  in  words — Tabooed  animals — Royal  names — Sacred 
character  of — Veneration  for  royalty — Sakalava  chiefs — Posthumous 
names — Relics  of  the  sign  and  gesture  language — Salutations — Sym- 
bolic acts — Royalty — "Licking  the  sole" — Kabarys — The  taboo. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

MAL.\GASY  FOLK-LORE  AND  POPULAR  SUPERSTITIONS    .         .         .  174 

Animals — The  ox — Birds — Insects  —  Fabulous  animals — Fauauy,  or 
seven-headed  serpent— Footprints  of  giants — Trees  and  plants — 
Ordeals — Folk-lore  of  life — Lucky  and  unlucky  actions — Sickness  and 
death — Witchcraft  and  charms  —  Food  and  fady  of  the  Sihanaka — 
Snakes  and  lemurs — Tabooed  days — in  clans — and  villages — Good 
omens — for  food — and  wealth — Evil  omens — as  to  famine — Trade 
—  Poverty,  and  death — Weather  prognostics — Various  portents — 
dreams. 


X 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PAGE 

MALAGASY  ORATORY,  ORNAMENTS  OF  SPEECH,  SYMBOLIC  ACTIONS, 

AND  CONUNDRUMS  IQI 

Introductory  historical  sketch  —  Folk-lore  — Folk-tales  —  Proverbs — 
Kahary — Oratory  and  figures  of  speech — The  desolate  one — Mutual 
love — The  bird — A  divorced  wife — Transitoriness  of  life — Bereave- 
ment— Death — Imagination — Boasting — The  crocodile — A  place  for 
everything — Filial  love — Friendship — Thanksgiving — Evil  speech — 
Symbolic  acts — The  two  kings — The  heir  to  the  throne — Riddles 
and  conundrums. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

MALAGASY  SONGS,  POETRY,  CHILDREN'S  GAMES,  AND  MYTHICAL 

CREATURES  213 

Songs  to  the  sovereign  —  Dirges  —  Sihanaka  laments — Ballad  of 
Benandro  —  Friendship  —  Children's  games  —  Rasariiidni — Soa^iiuiitva 
— Sakada  —  "Leper"  game — "Star  killing"  —  New  Year's  games — 
Counting  games — Marvellous  creatures — Songomby — Fanany,  or  seven- 
headed  serpent — Tokandia,  or  "  Singlefoot  " — Kindly — Dona,  or  Pily 
(serpent) — Lalomcna  (Hippopotamus  ?) — A  ngaliipona — Siona. 


CHAPTER  XH. 

MALAGASY  FOLK-TALES  AND  FABLES  237 

Bonia — Crocodile  and  dog — Three  sisters  and  Itrimobe — The  members 
of  the  body— The  little  bird— Rapeto— The  lost  Son  of  God— The 
five  fingers — The  earth  and  the  skies — The  birds  choosing  a  king — 
The  lizards — Hawk  and  hen — Vazimba — Chameleon  and  lizard — 
Serpent  and  frog — The  rice  and  sugar-cane — Two  rogues — Wild 
hog  and  rat. 

CHAPTER  Xni. 

DIVINATION   AMONG   THE    MALAGASY,   TOGETHER    WITH  NATIVE 

IDEAS  AS  TO   FATE  AND   DESTINY  262 

The  Sik}dy — Subject  investigated  by  Mr.  Dahle — Little  organised 
idolatry  among  the  Malagasy — Diviners — Divination  and  fate — Invoca- 
tion of  the  Sikldy — Sixteen  figures  of  the  Sik)dy — Sixteen  columns  of 
the  Sik)dy — Erecting  the  Sikidy — Working  of  the  Sikldy — Identical 
figures — Unique  figures — Combined  figures — Miscellaneous  Sik)dy — 
Gun  charms — Trade  charms — Medicinal  charms — Fortunate  places 
and  days — Ati-fako — Fate  as  told  by  zodiac  and  moon — Lucky  and 
unlucky  days — House  divinations — Fate  as  told  by  the  planets — Days 
of  the  week — Decreasing  influence  of  the  Sikidy. 


CONTENTS. 


xi 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

PAGE 

FUNERAL  CEREMOXIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY     ....  286 

Two  great  divisions  of  the  people — Idea  of  impurity  in  connection 
with  death — A  revolting  custom — Funeral  feasts — Tankarana — Their 
carved  coffins — Analogies  to  those  of  Philippine  Islanders — Betsimi- 
saraka — Ranomena — Tambahoaka,  Taimoro  and  Tanosy — The  Fanano 
— Tandroy  and  Mahafaly — Sakalava — The  Zomba,  or  sacred  house — 
The  Vazunba — Behisotra  and  Tandrona — Sihanaka — Bezanozano — 
Tanala — Vorimo — Ikongo — Hova — Betsileo — Bara — Funeral  of  Radama 
I. — Enormous  wealth  put  in  tomb — Silver  coffin. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

DECORATIVE  CARVING  ON  WOOD,  ESPECIALLY  ON  THE  BURIAL 
MEMORIALS  OF  THE  BETSILEO  MALAGASY  ;  TOGETHER  WITH 
NOTES  ON  THE  HANDICRAFTS  OF  THE  MALAGASY  AND  NATIVE 
PRODUCTS  313 

Absence  of  artistic  feeling  among  the  Hova — The  Betsileo — Cai-ved 
memorial  posts — Various  forms  of  tombs — Character  of  the  carving 
Vato  laky,  or  memorial  stones — Graves  of  great  depths — Carving  in 
houses — Collection  of  rubbings — General  style  of  ornamentation — 
Sj'mbolic  meaning  ? — Malagasy  handicrafts — Spinning  and  weaving 
— Different  kinds  of  cloth — Straw-work — Bark-cloth — Metal-work — 
Pottery — Building — Canoes  and  boats — Cultivated  products  of  country 
— Exports. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

ODD  AND  CURIOUS  EXPERIENCES  OF  LIFE  IN  M.ADAGASCAR     .         .  335 

The  comic  element  even^-where  present — First  experiences — Native 
dress — Borrowed  garments — Christmas  Day  exhibition — Interruptions 
to  Divine  service — A  nation  of  bald-heads — Native  houses  and  their 
inmates  —  Receptions  by  Hova  governors  —  Native  feasts  —  Queer 
articles  of  food — First  attempts  at  speaking  Malagas}- — "Try  a  rela- 
tive " — Transformations  of  English  names — Biblical  names — Odd  - 
names — English  mistakes — The  "southern"  side  of  his  moustache — 
Funeral  presents — Church  decoration — Offertory  boxes — Deacon's 
duties. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR  IN  CONNECTION  WITH 
THE  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  ISLAND  ;  WITH  NOTICES 
OF  THE  EXTINCT  FORMS  OF  ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  COUNTRY  .  353 

General  characteristics  of  mammalian  fauna — Remarkable  difference 
to  that  of  Africa — An  ancient  island — Wallace's  "  Island  Life  " — Ori- 
ental and  Australian  affinities — Vegetable  productions — Botanising  in 


xii 


CONTENTS. 


Madagascar — Three-fourths  of  the  flora  endemic  in  the  island — Three 
different  regions  described  by  Mr.  Baron — Floral  beauty — Orchids — 
The  eastern  region — The  central  region — The  western  region — 
Extinct  forms  of  animal  life — Grandidier's  discoveries — Geology — 
Huge  lemuroid — Link  between  apes  and  lemurs — Small  hippopota- 
mus— The  .^pyornis — Crocodiles  —  Enormous  terrestrial  lizard — 
Primaeval  Madagascar. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


1.  CENTRAL  PORTION  OF  AXTAXANARIVO  .         .  .  FlVntispteCC 

2.  HOW  WE  TRAVEL  IX  MADAGASCAR          .         .  To  fdCC  p.  I 

3.  CAXOES  OX  RIVER  NEAR  COAST     ...  „  4 

4.  VILLAGE  OX  COAST   „  1 5 

5.  STOXE  GATEWAY  OF  AXCIEXT  TOWXS  IX  IMERIXA         „  26 

6.  NORTHERN  PART  OF  ANTANANARIVO      .          .  „  34 

7.  VIEW  FROM  ANDOHALO          ....  „  46 

8.  ANTANANARIVO  FROM  THE  WEST.     SOUTH  END  OF  CITY 

To  face  p.  52 

9.  A  SAKALAVA  WARRIOR   „  I49 

10.  BETSIMISARAKA  WOMEN          ....  „  I9I 

11.  TAISAKA  CHIEFS   „  286 

12.  BETSIMISARAKA  CEMETERY    ....  „  29O 

13.  MALAGASY  LOOM,  AND  WEAVING  A  LAMBA    .  „  313 

14.  A  HOVA  OFFICER,  MALAGASY  ARMY        .         .  336 

15.  TRAVELLERS'  TREES,  LOWER  FOREST    .         .  „  353 

16.  RIVER  SCENE  IN  FOREST       ....  „  368 


CHAPTER  I. 


FROM  COAST  TO  CAPITAL;  NOTES  OF  A  JOURNEY  FROM 
^'  MAHANORO  TO  ANTANANARIVO, 

Various  routes  to  interior — Mahanoro — Madagascar  travelling — Filanjana  or 
Palanquin — Native  bearers — Native  villages — Betsimisaraka  cemetery — 
Canoe  travelling — Canoe  songs — Tropical  vegetation — The  Traveller's-tree — 
Scenery — Native  houses  and  arrangements — A  tiring  Sunday's  journey- 
Butterflies  and  birds — A  village'congregation — Forest  scenery  and  luxuriance — 
Romantic  glens  and  glades — Upland  and  extensive  prospects — In  Imerina  at 
last — Over  old  haunts  in  forest — Mantasoa  and  its  workshops — Native 
bridges — War  preparations — A  hearty  welcome  to  the  capital. 

AT  the  time  of  the  Franco-Malagasy  war  of  1 883-1 885,  the 
route  to  the  capital  from  the  East  Coast,  by  way  of 
Tamatave,  was  closed  for  many  months,  and  the  roads  from 
Mahanoro  and  Mananjara  became  the  usual  route  of  foreigners 
coming  into  the  interior.  It  was  my  good  fortune  to  be  able 
to  come  up  to  Imerina  by  the  Mahanoro  route  in  the  month 
of  November,  1883  ;  and  it  may  perhaps  not  be  uninteresting 
to  give  here  the  substance  of  my  daily  notes  describing  our 
journey. 

We  found  ourselves,  early  in  the  afternoon  of  Thursday, 
November  8th,  fairly  on  our  way  towards  the  interior.  Our 
carriages  were  the  ordinary  native  filanjana,  or  light,  open 
palanquin  ;  our  motive  power,  strong  Malagasy  bearers,  eight 
to  each  person,  in  two  sets  of  four  each  ;  the  roads  we  traversed, 
the  paths  made  simply  by  the  bare  feet  of  the  natives,  generation 
after  generation,  mounting  hills,  floundering  through  bogs,  and 
wading  through  streams,  just  as  they  happened  to  come  ;  our 

2  I 


2  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

inns,  the  huts  of  rush  or  wood,  innocent  alike  of  doors  or 
windows,  table  or  chairs  or  beds,  and  boasting  only  a  clean  mat 
spread  for  us  over  many  dirty  ones ;  our  cuisine,  the  rice  and 
fowls  always  to  be  got  on  the  way,  supplemented  by  a  few 
stores  taken  in  tin  boxes ;  and  our  accommodation  for  the 
night,  light,  portable  "  stretchers  "  carried  by  our  men,  with  the 
bedding  secured  in  similar  watertight  contrivances.  Our  party 
consisted  of  my  wife  and  little  girl,  two  years  old,  and  myself, 
together  with  our  friend  Mr.  Houlder. 

I  should  perhaps  add  a  few  words  here  in  answer  to  a 
possible  question  as  to  what  kind  of  vehicle  we  travel  in  in 
Madagascar.  This  contrivance,  generally  called  "  palanquin " 
by  Europeans,  but  filanjana  by  the  Malagasy  (from  the  verb 
mildnja^  to  carry  on  the  shoulder),  consists  of  a  couple  of 
light,  strong  poles,  about  lO  feet  long,  kept  together  by  two 
stout  iron  rods,  and  with  a  seat  framed  of  iron  and  covered 
with  leather,  hung  from  the  poles.  Ladies'  filanjana  are  a  kind 
of  oblong  basket,  made  of  fine  strips  of  sheepskin  plaited 
together,  and  carried  on  two  poles  made  of  the  strong  but  light 
midrib  of  the  leaves  of  the  rofia  palm.  When  travelling  long 
distances,  a  hood  of  rofia  cloth  is  fixed  over  ladies'  filanjana 
as  a  protection  from  the  sun  and  rain.  The  "bearers"  are, 
as  a  rule,  strong,  active,  and  cheerful  fellows,  generally  very 
kind  and  helpful,  and  most  careful  of  the  safety  of  those 
whom  they  carry,  hour  after  hour  and  day  after  day,  on  their 
shoulders. 

The  first  stage  of  our  journey  was  northwards,  along  a  sandy 
breadth  of  land,  between  the  belt  of  trees  which  line  the  coast 
and  the  lagoons.  Beyond  these  trees,  to  the  left,  extends  some 
wooded  country,  with  a  range  of  low  hills  west  of  it,  gradually 
approaching  the  lagoons,  and  then  showing  line  after  line  of 
higher  hills  towards  the  interior.  The  Traveller's-tree  is  very 
plentiful,  as  well  as  several  species  of  Pandanus,  and  large 
Arums  in  the  shallow  waters.  After  four  hours  and  a  quarter's 
steady  march  we  came  to  a  village  called  Beparasy,  with 


FROM  COAST  TO  CAPITAL.  3 

nearly  one  hundred  houses.  This  afternoon  we  passed  a  small 
Betsimisaraka  cemetery,  where  we  saw  at  a  little  distance 
the  curious  fashion  they  have  of  wrapping  up  the  corpses  in 
mats  and  enclosing  them  in  planks,  and  then  fixing  them  on  a 
stage,  4  or  5  feet  above  the  ground.^  Near  the  village  were 
tombs  of  a  different  description,  resembling  a  house-roof,  en- 
closed by  a  double  line  of  pointed  stakes.  In  the  centre  of  the 
village  is  fixed  a  post,  whose  top  is  sharpened  into  two  long 
"  horns,"  and  on  this  are  the  mouldering  remains  of  an  ox-skull. 
This,  they  told  us,  was  a  circumcision  memorial. 

Friday,  Nov.  gth. — We  were  up  soon  after  four  o'clock,  got 
our  things  packed,  had  a  good  breakfast,  took  our  quinine, 
and  were  all  clear  away  before  six  o'clock.  Going  down  to 
the  foot  of  the  rising  ground  on  which  the  village  is  built,  we 
came  to  a  narrow  creek,  where  a  canoe  was  awaiting  us.  Going 
along  this  creek  we  came  to  a  broader  reach  of  the  lagoon,  and 
were  soon  admiring  the  great  Viha  arums,  9  or  lo  feet  high, 
just  flowering,  and  one  of  the  various  species  of  Pandanus,  which 
has  an  almost  grotesque  but  withal  a  very  graceful  and  slender 
outline.  After  passing  through  another  short,  narrow  channel, 
we  came  out  on  a  broad,  widespreading  lake. 

Few  experiences  are  more  pleasant  in  Madagascar  travelling 
than  to  glide  rapidly  down  or  across  one  of  the  large  rivers  in 
the  early  morning — the  time  when  the  eastern  rivers,  at  least,  are 
the  smoothest — and  in  a  large  canoe,  with  plenty  of  paddlers, 
to  listen  to  the  rowers'  songs,  which  are  often  both  amusing  and 
musical.  They  will  frequently  improvise  a  song,  one  of  them 
keeping  up  a  recitative,  in  which  circumstances  which  have 
occurred  on  the  journey  are  introduced,  while  the  others  chime 
in  with  a  chorus  at  regular  intervals,  a  favourite  one  being 
"  He  I  misy  vet  ?  " — "  Oh  !  is  there  some  ?  "  This  question  refers 
to  various  good  things  they  hope  to  get  at  the  end  of  the  day's 
journey,  such  as  plenty  of  rice,  beef,  sweet-potatoes,  &c.,  these 

»  See  subsequent  chapter  on  "  Funeral  Ceremonies,"  for  fuller  information  on 
tombs  and  burial  customs. 


4 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


articles  of  food  being  mentioned  one  after  another  by  the  leader 
of  the  song.  A  little  delicate  flattery  of  their  employer,  the 
Englishman  they  are  rowing,  ia  often  introduced,  and  praises  of 
his  hoped-for  generosity  in  providing  these  luxuries  for  them  ; 
something  in  this  style  : — 

E,  misy  va  ? 

E,  misy  re  ! 
E,  ny  vorontsiloza,  zalahy  6  ? 

E,  misy  re  ! 
E,  ny  gisy  matavy,  zalahy  e  ? 

E,  misy  re  ! 
E,  ny  akoho  manatody,  zalahy  e  ? 

E,  misy  re  ! 
E,  ny  Vazaha  be  vola,  zalahy  e  ? 

E,  misy  re  ! 

and  so  on,  ad  libitum. 

In  another  song  heard  by  the  writer  on  the  Matitanana  river 
(south-east  coast),  the  chorus  was  Mandany  vatsy,  Toaindsina 
malaza  c ! "  "  Consumes  provisions  for  the  way,  famous 
Tamatave  O ! "  while  the  recitative  brought  in  all  the  different 
villages  on  the  journey  from  Tamatave  to  the  capital,  ending 
with  Andohalo  (the  central  space),  and  Avara-drova  (the  northern 
and  chief  entrance  to  the  palace).  i 

The  lagoons  of  the  eastern  coast  form  a  very  marked  feature 
in  the  physical  geography  of  the  island.  They  extend  for  more 
than  three  hundred  miles,  that  is,  from  north  of  Tamatave  to 
south  of  Mananjara,  forming  an  almost  continuous  line  ;  at  least 
the  cutting  of  about  thirty  miles  of  canal  would  make  them  into 
an  uninterrupted  waterway  between  all  the  chief  ports  of  the 
eastern  coast.  During  the  reign  of  the  enlightened  Radama  I. 
(i 819-1828)  the  work  of  uniting  these  lagoons  was  commenced, 
but  was  soon  stopped  by  his  death.  It  may  be  hoped  that  it 
will  not  be  long  before  this  work  will  be  again  taken  in  hand. 
It  would,  doubtless,  be  of  great  value  to  the  commerce  and 
inter-communication  of  the  eastern  coast. 

These  coast  lagoons  sometimes  take  the  form  of  a  river, 


Oh,  is  there  any  ? 

O  yes,  there's  some  ! 
Oh  the  turkeys,  lads,  O  ? 

O  yes,  there's  some  ! 
Oh  the  plump-looking  geese,  lads,  O  ? 

O  yes,  there's  some  ! 
Oh  the  egg-laying  fowls,  lads,  O  ? 

O  yes,  there's  some  ! 
Oh  the  very  rich  foreigner,  lads,  O  ? 

O  yes,  here  he  is  ! 


FROM  COAST  TO  CAPITAL.  5 

running  for  several  miles  in  almost  a  straight  line,  while  in 
many  places  they  broaden  out  into  extensive  lakes. 

After  leaving  the  canoes  we  began  to  turn  westward  and 
then  north-westward,  over  a  wooded  country.  The  most  notice- 
able feature  in  the  vegetation  is  the  Traveller's-tree,  which  is 
very  abundant,  almost  covering  the  hills  wherever  the  virgin 
forest  has  been  cut  down.  The  Pandanus  and  the  7'ofia  palm 
are  also  very  plentiful ;  and  the  dense  secondary  woods,  through 
which  the  narrow  path  winds,  were  most  beautiful,  many  trees 
and  plants  being  just  at  the  time  of  flowering. 

On  all  parts  of  the  East  Coast,  from  the  sea  level  up  to  i,ooo 
feet  above  the  sea,  the  most  prominent  and  interesting  tree 
is  this  well-known  Traveller's-tree.  This  tree,  which  seems 
to  form  a  link  between  the  bananas  and  the  palms,  gives  a 
peculiar  character  to  the  vegetation,  and  at  once  marks  the 
landscape  as  a  Madagascar  one.  From  a  palm-like  trunk, 
usually  from  lo  to  30  feet  high,  but  in  certain  situations  reaching 
from  two  to  three  times  the  latter  height,  springs  a  gigantic 
fan  of  long  and  broad  leaves  like  those  of  a  banana,  often 
forming  an  almost  complete  circle  of  20  to  30  feet  in  diameter. 
These  have  a  peculiar  effect,  especially  when  a  line  of  them 
crown  the  sides  and  summit  of  a  hill.  Mr.  Ellis  has  compared 
them  to  the  feathered  crest  in  the  head-dress  of  an  Indian 
sachem,  and  there  is  much  truth  in  the  comparison. 

Although  it  has  been  sometimes  denied,  it  is  perfectly  true 
that  a  good  supply  of  pure  and  cool  water  can  always  be 
obtained  by  piercing  the  base  of  the  leaf  stalks  ;  and  I  have 
myself  been  thankful,  when  travelling  along  the  coast,  and  could 
get  no  water  except  from  the  stagnant  and  brackish  contents  of 
the  lagoons,  to  tap  these  living  fountains  and  take  a  hearty 
draught  from  the  Traveller's-tree. 

The  Longozy  (cardamom)  is  also  very  abundant,  and  the 
small  curving  Bamboo.  We  soon  began  to  ascend  hill  after 
hill,  and  presently  caught  sight  of  the  sea,  many  miles  behind 
us.    The  hills  and  forest  appear  to  come  here  nearer  to  the 


6  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

coast  than  on  the  Tamatave  route.  On  reaching  the  end  of  a 
ridge,  we  caught  sight  of  a  river  roaring  over  rapids  below  us, 
a  mile  or  two  away,  and  flowing  to  the  sea  (at  Marosiky).  We 
had  a  long  ride  of  (including  stoppages  for  canoes)  five  hours 
and  twenty  minutes.  Many  of  the  ascents  and  descents  were 
very  steep,  and  the  paths  narrow.  There  appears  to  be  a  con- 
siderable number  of  small  villages  on  the  road.  Our  after- 
noon's ride  was  much  shorter  than  that  of  the  morning,  two 
hours  and  a  half  only,  but  generally  following  the  valley  of  the 
pretty  river  Manampotsy,  which  flows  westwards  and  southward, 
frequently  foaming  over  rocky  bars  and  rapids.  We  passed 
large  masses  of  pinkish  quartz,  and  in  some  places  the  rocks 
in  the  bed  of  the  river  were  tilted,  with  their  strata  almost 
perpendicular.  All  over  this  country  the  air  was  thick  with  the 
smoke  from  the  burning  of  the  trees  and  grass  on  the  hillsides, 
in  order  to  plant  rice  in  the  ashes — a  most  wasteful  and  bar- 
barous custom,  which  causes  a  great  destruction  not  only  of  the 
secondary  woods  and  jungle,  but  also  of  the  virgin  forest. 
Before  four  o'clock  we  stopped  at  a  village  called  Ambodimanga, 
built  on  rising  ground  some  200  feet  or  so  above  the  river,  which 
here  flows  nearly  north  and  south.  On  both  sides  of  the  river- 
valley  rise  high  hills  to  a  height  of  several  hundred  feet,  and 
covered  with  patches  of  old  forest  on  their  summits. 

Saturday,  Nov.  \oth. — We  must  now  have  ascended  to 
between  1,000  and  2,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  a  thick 
rug  became  a  very  comfortable  covering  towards  the  small 
hours  of  the  morning.  We  were  off  before  six  o'clock,  and 
immediately  commenced  a  steep  ascent  of  several  hundred 
feet.  Our  road  lay  along  a  ridge,  and  then  west  and  north- 
west, up  and  down,  over  some  very  rough  paths.  The  river 
Manampotsy  is  still  our  companion  to  the  right,  flowing  along 
due  east.  Here  there  is  no  continuous  forest,  but  only  patches 
of  it  left  on  the  summits  and  sides  of  the  hills.  We  made  a 
short  morning's  ride  of  two  and  a  half  hours,  and  stopped  at 
a  village  called  Antanambe.    In  the  house  where  we  rested  were 


FROM  COAST  TO  CAPITAL.  / 

a  number  of  pretty  little  mats  called  lakatra,  about  i8 
inches  square,  with  a  variety  of  patterns  in  brown  straw.  These, 
they  told  us,  were  for  ornamenting  the  house,  and  were  here 
fixed  on  the  walls.  We  tried  to  buy  some,  but  they  had  none 
new  enough  to  sell  us.  In  these  Betsimisaraka  houses  the 
arrangement  of  the  single  room  is  thus :  door  at  the  left-hand 
side  ;  another  facing  it  on  the  opposite  side ;  on  the  right-hand 
nearest  corner,  as  you  enter,  is  the  hearth,  with  four  massive 
posts  supporting  two  stages,  and  called  salazana.  Near  the 
door  is  fixed  a  large  cylindrical  box,  hollowed  out  of  a  tree 
trunk,  3  feet  high  and  i8  inches  wide,  and  used  for  storing 
rice.  As  in  Hova  houses,  the  soot  is  allowed  to  accumulate, 
and  to  hang  in  long  strings  from  the  roof. 

Our  second  stage,  of  between  six  and  seven  hours,  was  very 
hot  and  wearisome.  We  crossed  a  lovely  glen,  with  rocks  and 
stream  overhung  by  forest,  and  here  the  men  enjoyed  a  bathe. 
During  the  afternoon  we  crossed  the  higher  waters  of  the 
Manampotsy,  here  flowing  from  the  south.  We  stayed  for 
nearly  an  hour,  about  half  way,  under  some  trees,  to  rest  a  little 
from  the  great  heat.  The  hills  around  are  very  high,  and  are 
covered  with  virgin  forest.  The  house  in  which  we  stayed  for 
the  night  was  the  smallest  in  which  we  have  yet  put  up  ;  it  was 
only  about  12  feet  by  10  feet,  and  had  about  as  much  room  as 
we  should  have  had  in  the  cabin  of  a  ship.  This  was  the 
coldest  night  we  have  yet  had.  We  fairly  entered  the  great 
forest  before  getting  to  our  halting-place. 

Sunday,  Nov.  wth. — This  day's  march,  of  more  than  six 
hours,  was  through  a  part  of  the  old  forest ;  some  of  the  trees 
were  of  great  height,  but  none  were  of  considerable  bulk.  I 
was  struck  by  the  variety  of  lichens  and  mosses  on  the  tree 
trunks  ;  on  some  single  trees  there  must  have  been  dozens  of 
different  species,  but  not  being  on  foot  one  could  collect  only  by 
making  a  snatch  at  some  of  the  aerial  lichens,  which  were 
within  reach  of  one's  hand.  I  noticed  that  the  forest  was  by  no 
means  so  silent  as  I  had  remarked  at  other  times.  Former 


8 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


journeys  were  made,  however,  in  the  colder  winter  months  of 
the  year,  but  now  that  the  warm  weather  is  approaching,  some 
bird  or  other  was  almost  always  heard.  Every  quarter  of  a 
mile  or  so  we  heard  the  noisy  call  of  the  Kankafotra  Cuckoo, 
kow-kow,  kow-kow,  repeated ;  then  the  flute-call  of  another 
cuckoo,  the  Toloho,  whose  notes  were  heard  all  the  way  from 
Mahanoro ;  also  the  chirp  and  whistle  of  the  Raildvy  or  King- 
crow,  as  well  as  the  incessant  twitter  of  many  smaller  birds. 
Then  came,  now  and  then,  the  melancholy  cries  of  the  Lemurs 
high  up  among  the  trees.  Numerous  butterflies  crossed  our 
path,  seven  or  eight  different  species  at  least:  the  rather  common 
green  one  with  yellow  spots,  the  blackish  brown  with  two  large 
blue  spots,  the  widely  distributed  brown  one  with  black-edged 
wings,  the  pure  white  one,  the  white  with  orange  edges,  white 
with  black  edges,  white  with  crimped  edges,  the  small  yellow 
species,  the  small  buff",  the  minute  brown  and  blue,  and  many 
others.  We  have  now  lost  the  Traveller's-tree  ;  the  rofia  palm, 
however,  is  seen  in  the  damp  hollows,  but  not  so  large  as  lower 
down  the  country.  The  Bamboo,  a  slender  graceful  species, 
growing  singly  and  bending  over  in  an  arched  form,  is  plentiful 
in  some  of  the  valleys  and  on  the  hillsides.  Here  and  there, 
high  up  on  the  hills,  I  caught  the  blaze  of  colours  of  one  of 
those  called  Flamboyant.  But  the  most  plentiful  tree  with 
bright-coloured  flowers  is  one  bearing  pinkish-red  flowers,  on 
some  of  which  there  is  a  mass  of  yellow  stamens. 

At  last  we  came  up  to  a  village,  called  Antenimbe,  where 
we  got  a  much  larger  house  than  on  the  previous  evening. 
We  were  glad  to  throw  ourselves  on  the  mats  and  lie  down 
until  dinner  was  ready.  The  heat  was  very  great  and  stifling 
in  the  houses  with  their  single  door.  But  by  five  o'clock  I  was 
ready  to  take  part  in  our  little  service,  which  we  held  out  of 
doors.  Most  of  our  bearers  came,  and  some  of  the  people  of 
the  village.  We  sang  three  or  four  hymns  ;  one  of  our  bearers 
prayed,  and  H.  and  I  both  read  a  portion  of  Scripture  and  gave 
a  short  exposition. 


FROM  COAST  TO  CAPITAL.  9 

Monday^  Nov.  I2th. — We  have  to-day  been  travelling  more 
than  nine  hours.  Our  road  lay  first  to  the  south,  so  as  to  get 
round  a  towering  height,  and  then  turned  westward  through 
deep  valleys,  with  a  sparkling  river,  which  we  repeatedly  crossed. 
Again  we  noticed  the  destruction  of  the  forest  and  the  wanton 
waste  of  the  trees.  We  stopped  at  a  small  village  of  some 
sixteen  houses,  after  nearly  three  and  a  half  hours'  ride. 

We  now  ascended  to  the  pass  between  the  ridge  of  mountains 
which  bounds  the  eastern  side  of  the  Mangoro  valley,  and  must 
have  risen  500  or  700  feet  before  gaining  the  summit.  On  our 
right  a  river,  broken  by  many  rocks  and  falls,  poured  eastward. 
In  the  small  space  allowed  by  the  river-bed  the  trees  rose  to  an 
unusual  height,  and  on  either  side  of  the  gorge  forest-clothed 
mountains  towered  to  elevations  of  at  least  2,000  feet  above 
us.  The  path  was  difficult,  but  the  deep  cuttings  we  continually 
passed  through  were  fringed  by  ferns  and  other  plants.  I 
noticed,  however,  that  all  along  the  route  we  had  come  there 
were  no  orchids,  at  least  none  conspicuous  by  flowering,  and 
hardl}'  any  palms.  At  one  point  I  noticed  a  nest  suspended 
from  a  twig  over  the  water,  in  shape  exactly  resembling  that 
of  an  inverted  chemical  retort,  and  made  by  the  Fbdifetsy, 
or  "  Crafty  Weaver  "  {Ploceus  peiisilis). 

At  last  we  reached  the  highest  point  of  the  pass,  and  began 
to  descend  by  a  path  more  steep  and  rugged  than  the  one 
we  had  mounted  by.  Gradually  we  got  clear  of  the  forest, 
and  the  view  would  have  been  magnificent  had  it  not  been 
dimmed  by  the  clouds  of  smoke  rising  in  every  direction  from 
the  burning  forest.  At  one  place  we  were  almost  suffocated 
by  the  blazing  wood  and  jungle  close  to  our  path,  and  narrowly 
escaped  being  stopped  by  the  flames.  Presently  we  caught 
a  glimpse  of  the  Mangoro  far  below,  and  we  could  hardly  have 
descended  less  than  1,000  feet  from  the  summit  of  the  pass  to 
the  river  level.  Beyond  the  river  the  western  range  of  moun- 
tains rose  in  great  grandeur,  line  after  line — all  forest-clad  ; 
these  form  the  eastern  edge  of  the  upper  plateau  ;  and  I  do 


10  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

not  remember  to  have  seen  anywhere  else  in  Madagascar  such 
a  magnificent  mountain  scene.  At  a  little  before  two  o'clock 
we  got  down  to  the  Mangoro,  here  a  smooth  rapid  stream  from 
200  to  300  feet  wide,  and  in  a  few  minutes  were  ferried  across 
in  a  large  new  lakana  (canoe).  It  was  easy  to  see  that  at  this 
point  the  physical  geography  of  the  country  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  same  river  valley  on  the  Tamatave  route. 
There — between  Moramanga  and  the  Ifody  hills — it  widens  out 
into  an  extensive  plain,  but  here  the  river  valley  is  very  narrow, 
the  mountains  descending  by  steep  slopes,  and  rising  on  the 
western  side,  as  already  remarked,  into  ridges  of  great  height. 

Our  road  lay  along  the  valley,  generally  following  the  course 
of  the  stream.  It  can  be  traversed  by  canoes  for  no  great 
distance,  since  it  is  broken  up  repeatedly  by  rocky  bars  and  by 
falls  over  ledges  of  rock  ;  at  one  point  it  is  contracted  to  a 
narrow  gorge,  through  which  the  water  rushes  with  a  tremendous 
swirl  and  roar. 

We  were  glad,  after  our  long  ride  of  nine  hours,  to  see 
a  small  village,  Andranotsara,  before  us,  on  a  rising  ground 
80  or  90  feet  above  the  river.  We  found  two  sufficiently  decent 
houses  in  the  fifteen  or  sixteen  composing  the  village.  Here- 
abouts the  wet  culture  of  rice  begins  ^ ;  and  here  the  people 
brought  us  small  presents. 

Tuesday^  Nov.  1 2th. — We  left  Andranotsara  at  five  o'clock, 
and  for  two  hours  went  northward,  following  the  course  of 
the  Mangoro,  which  is  beset  with  rocks,  and  forms  rapids 
and  falls  in  several  places.  A  bright,  clear  river,  the  Mana- 
kona,  falls  into  the  larger  one  close  to  a  village  of  the  same 
name.  After  this  we  left  the  river,  and  began  a  long,  stiff 
ascent  up  the  hills  on  the  west  side  of  the  river  valley.  Our 
road  then  turned  west  and  north-west  over  rugged  ground — 
hill  and  valley,  through  patches  of  old  forest,  with  difficult 
paths.    Then  the  road  cut  diagonally  across  the  spurs  of  a 

^  For  fuller  information  as  to  rice  culture  in  Madagascar,  see  subsequent 
chapter  on  "  The  Changing  Year." 


FROM  COAST  TO  CAPITAL. 


II 


rock-capped  and  forest-covered  hill,  called  Marivolanitra. 
Rounding  one  shoulder  of  this,  we  now  saw  part  of  the  Ankay 
plain,  the  Moramanga  hills  on  the  east,  the  great  mass  of  Ifody 
standing  out  like  an  outwork  of  the  walls  of  the  central  plateau, 
and  then  Angavo  and  the  line  of  hills  which  form  the  edge 
of  the  interior  highland.  The  Ankay  plain  appears  to  end  here, 
southwards,  rather  abruptly.  The  Angavo  chain  of  heights 
seems  to  curve  round  in  crescent-shaped  masses,  and  then  joins 
the  mountains  which  bound  the  Mangoro  valley.  Near  Fari- 
himazava  we  found  a  flourishing  rice  valley  cultivated  after  the 
Hova  fashion,  and  the  appearance  of  the  country  and  the 
methods  of  cultivation  told  us  that  we  were  getting  near  Imerina. 

After  four  and  a  half  hours'  ride  we  came  to  the  village 
of  Beparasy,  quite  a  Hova-looking  place,  with  the  houses  made 
of  thick  planking,  "  horns  "  to  the  gables,  and  a  native  chapel. 
Here  the  people  brought  us  rice  and  eggs  for  our  entertainment. 

Leaving  again  after  noon,  we  had  a  weary  journey  over 
another  great  mass  of  hill,  and  then  over  the  plain,  still  going 
north-west,  and  approaching  the  blue,  forest-covered  slopes  of 
the  wall  of  the  plateau.  We  were  glad  at  a  little  before  five 
o'clock  to  stop  at  a  poor  little  hamlet,  called  Ambodimivongo, 
where,  however,  we  both  got  tolerably  good  houses  ;  but  the 
bearers  of  our  luggage  only  just  managed  to  get  in  in  time 
to  escape  a  heavy  thunderstorm.  Our  house  began  to  leak 
a  little  ;  but  happily  it  rained  heavily  only  for  a  short  time. 
This  is  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season  in  the  interior,  but 
thus  far  we  have  had  no  rain  on  our  journey,  and  so  our 
things  have  ke^pt  dry.  We  have  also  had  no  annoyance  from 
rats,  and  hardly  any  from  mosquitoes.  The  people  of  the 
houses  here  have  been  more  intelligent  and  conversable  than 
at  most  of  the  places  where  we  have  stayed.  They  brought 
us  wild  raspberries  and  blackberries  as  soon  as  they  found  we 
appreciated  these  fruits.  The  former  we  have  had  as  dessert 
almost  all  the  way  up  from  the  coast,  and  a  very  acceptable 
addition  to  our  fare  they  have  proved. 


12  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Wednesday,  Nov,  I'i^th. — There  was  a  thick  drizzly  rain  as 
we  commenced  our  ascent  up  the  hills  into  the  regions  of  the 
interior.  In  a  little  time  we  got  up  to  Andrangoloaka.  A 
great  many  trees  and  plants  were  in  flower,  and  the  deep 
cuttings  through  which  the  path  winds  were  lined  with  ferns 
and  other  plants.  For  nearly  two  and  a  half  hours  we  made 
an  uninterrupted  ascent,  very  difficult  in  many  places,  and  the 
rain  was  still  falling. 

Then  we  came  to  a  part  of  the  forest  where  we  recog- 
nised some  of  our  favourite  haunts  during  our  holidays  at 
Andrangoloaka,  but  when  we  came  up  to  the  house  we 
were  grieved  to  see  how  it  was  falling  into  ruin  through 
neglect.  The  old  house-keeper  and  his  wife  immediately 
recognised  us,  and  were  the  first  to  welcome  us  to  Imerina. 
Then  we  descended  the  hill,  and  after  an  hour  or  more  we  came 
to  the  single-plank  bridges  over  deep  water,  which  had  always 
been  a  terror  in  the  journey  to  or  from  Andrangoloaka,  and 
now  seemed  more  difficult  than  ever,  but  which  we  crossed 
in  safety.  After  nearly  five  hours'  ride  we  came  to  Mantasoa, 
and  its  ruined  workshops  and  houses  constructed  by  M.  Laborde. 
We  stayed  for  lunch  at  the  large  house,  and  here  felt  we  were 
getting  back  to  civilisation  again,  as  we  ate  our  meal  off  a  table 
and  sat  to  it  on  chairs  ! 

Mantasoa  was  a  remarkable  place,  for  Madagascar,  and 
when  I  first  visited  it,  in  1872,  was  in  a  much  more  perfect 
state  of  preservation  tnan  it  was  at  the  time  of  this  journey  in 
1883.  It  was  a  large  collection  of  massively  built  workshops, 
made  for  the  manufacture  of  cannon,  pottery,  glass,  gunpowder, 
brass,  steel,  paints,  soap,  refined  sugar,  bricks  and  tiles,  &c. 
These  were  erected  during  the  reign  of  the  Queen  Ranavalona  I. 
( 1 828-1 861),  under  the  direction  of  M.  Laborde,  a  Frenchman 
of  great  skill  and  inventive  genius.  To  supply  power  for  the 
various  workshops,  a  stream  was  diverted  from  the  river  close 
by  and  brought  by  iron  aqueducts  into  the  buildings  so  as  to 
turn  a  number  of  large  water-wheels.    At  the  time  of  my  first 


FROM  COAST  TO  CAPITAL.  1 3 

visit  to  Mantas6a  the  largest  workshop  was  still  crowned  by  its 
high-pitched  roof  covered  with  tiles.  The  walls  of  this  building 
are  of  dressed  stonework,  massive  as  that  of  a  castle  and  about 
6  feet  in  thickness.  In  this  building  the  furnaces  and  cannon- 
casting  apparatus  were  still  existing,  and  in  the  four  smaller 
workshops  much  of  the  water-wheel  machinery  still  remained. 
The  forge,  of  beautifully  dressed  stone,  had  then  its  roof  nearly 
perfect,  surrounding  the  openings  to  the  furnaces ;  and  there  were 
two  kilns,  also  of  well-finished  masonry,  for  firing  the  pottery 
manufactured  there.  Many  of  the  buildings  and  workshops, 
however,  were  made  of  clay,  and  had  become  shapeless  heaps 
of  earth.  All  around  the  hillsides  were  covered  with  the  ruins 
of  villages  which  had  been  built  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
various  workpeople,  about  two  thousand  in  number. 

One  other  point  may  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  this 
remarkable  creation  of  M.  Laborde's  skill,  but  one  of  a  less 
pleasing  character,  viz.,  that  during  the  long  persecution  between 
the  years  1836-1861,  many  of  the  Malagasy  Christians  had  to 
work  as  a  punishment  at  these  great  buildings.  For  several 
years  some  of  them  had  to  labour  in  quarrying  the  stone  and  in 
building  these  massive  workshops.  I  have  been  told  by  the 
pastor  of  one  of  the  country  churches  formerly  under  my  charge, 
that  he  and  others  had  no  rest  either  on  Sundays  or  on  other 
days,  and  that  their  bondage  was  very  severe,  many  of  them 
dying  under  its  pressure.  So  that  the  accession  of  Radama  II. 
was  welcomed  by  them  especially  as  a  time  of  "  liberty  to  the 
captives  and  the  opening  of  the  prison  to  those  that  were 
bound." 

A  leisurely  ride  of  about  two  hours  brought  us  early  in  the 
afternoon  to  A^mbatomanga ;  and  here  we  stayed  at  the  big 
house  of  the  Andriana,  the  feudal  lord  of  the  place,  where  we 
enjoyed  the  comfort  of  a  good  house,  and  had  a  good  deal  of 
talk  with  the  native  evangelist  stationed  here.  For  the  first 
time  we  came  upon  signs  of  war  preparation  :  all  the  lads  were 
armed  with  shield  and  spear,  and  are  being  constantly  exercised 


14  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

in  their  use.  Going  to  the  tomb  on  the  rock  above  the  town, 
just  before  sunset,  the  great,  bare  hills,  with  their  bones  of  rock 
showing  through  the  skin  of  turf ;  the  bright,  fresh  green  of  the 
newly  planted  rice-fields  ;  the  red  clay  roads  on  the  brownish- 
green  hills,  all  told  us  we  were  again  in  the  heart  of  Madagascar. 

It  is  needless  to  describe  our  five  hours'  ride  into  Antananarivo 
on  the  following  day,  or  the  hearty  welcome  from  our  friends, 
both  English  and  Malagasy,  on  our  arrival.  This  was  all  the 
more  hearty,  as  we  had  come  up  when  war  was  going  on,  and 
when  some  had  feared  to  come  at  all  at  such  a  time.  But  we 
never  doubted  then  or  afterwards  that  we  did  the  right  thing, 
for  our  work  suffered  little  interruption  during  the  war,  and  our 
help  was  needed  after  six  years'  absence  from  the  country  and 
the  people  whom  we  wished  to  serve. 


CHAPTER  IL 


IMERINA,  THE  CENTRAL  PROVIXCE  ;  ITS  PHYSICAL 
FEATURES  AXD  VILLAGE  LIFE, 


Recent  advances  in  knowledge  of  Madagascar  geography — Recent  journeys — 
Tamatave — Mode  of  travelling — Coast  lagoons — Scenery — Forest  and  climb- 
ing plants — Ankay  Plain — Upper  forest  belt — Imerina  or  Ankova,  "  Home  of 
the  Hova" — Mountains  and  prominent  peaks — Bare  uplands — Geology  and 
colour  of  soil — Extinct  volcanoes — Watershed  of  island — Lakes — Population 
— Sacred  towns — Village  fortifications — Maps  of  Imerina — An  Imerina  village 
— Ancient  villages  on  high  hills — Hova  houses  and  arrangements — Ox- 
fattening  pits — Native  tombs — Trees — Hova  children  and  games — Village 
chapels  and  schools. 


INCE  1 86 1,  when  the  reign  of  terror  under  the  Queen 


Ranavalona  I.  came  to  an  end,  great  advances  have 
been  made  in  our  knowledge  of  the  topography  and  physical 
geography  of  the  island,  and  of  its  geology,  botany,  and  natural 
history  ;  much  has  also  been  ascertained  as  to  its  people,  their 
divisions,  language,  customs,  traditions,  and  folk-lore ;  and  every 
year  sees  additions  made  to  a  fuller  understanding  both  of 
Madagascar  and  of  the  Malagasy.  Papers  on  the  geography  of 
the  island,  and  describing  various  exploratory  journeys,  have 
appeared  in  the  Proceedmgs  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society 
and  in  those  of  the  Scottish  Geographical  Society ;  and  we  owe 
much  to  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Mullens,  the  Rev.  W.  Deans  Cowan, 
Mr.  William  Johnson,  Captain  S.  P.  Oliver,  and  others,  for  thus 
giving  the  results  either  of  their  own  researches,  or  for  sum- 


l6  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

marising  the  journeys  of  other  travellers.^  Comparatively  little, 
however,  has  been  made  known  as  to  the  central  province  of 
Imerina,  the  heart  of  Madagascar,  the  home  of  the  dominant 
tribe,  the  Hova,  and  the  centre  of  government ;  or  about  the 
capital  city,  Antananarivo,  where  civilisation,  education,  and 
Christianity  have  made  the  greatest  progress. 

Before,  however,  describing  Imerina,  I  will  give  a  very  brief 
summary  of  what  has  been  done  during  the  last  few  years  to  fill 
up  the  blanks  on  the  map  of  the  great  island.  In  1879  I  con- 
tributed a  paper  to  the  Proc.  Roy.  Geogr.  Soc,  entitled,  "  The 
History  and  Present  Condition  of  our  Geographical  Knowledge 
of  Madagascar,"  in  which  I  pointed  out  what  had  been  done 
up  to  that  date  2;  and  since  then  several  journeys  have  been 
made  in  various  directions  into  regions  either  previously  alto- 
gether unknown  or  only  very  superficially  explored. 

In  the  years  1877  and  1878  journeys  were  made  in  the 
northern  and  north-western  parts  of  the  island,  as  well  as  from 
thence  to  the  capital,  by  a  German  naturalist.  Dr.  Chr.  Ruten- 
berg.  His  researches  added  a  good  deal  to  botany  and  natural 
history,  but  not  much  to  geography,  although  probably  we 
should  have  learnt  more  on  this  point  but  for  his  murder  by 
his  treacherous  native  followers.  It  was  not  until  1880  that 
detailed  accounts  were  published  of  his  collections  and  dis- 
coveries. 

A  valuable  addition  was  made  in  1882  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  southern  central  provinces  of  Betsileo,  Bara,  and  Tanala, 
by  a  paper  contributed  to  the  Proc.  Roy.  Geogr.  Soc.  by  the 
Rev.  W.  D.  Cowan,  giving  a  very  full  map  of  those  portions 
of  Madagascar  from  personal  survey.  Mr.  Cowan  was  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  London  Missionary  Society  in  the  Betsileo  for 
several  years,  and  utilised  his  numerous  journeys  for  teaching 

^  I  would  remark  here  that  I  must  not  be  understood  as  ignoring  the  vahiable 
work  of  several  French  cartographers,  as  MM.  Laillet  and  Suberbie,  Pere  Roblet, 
and  especially  M.  Alfred  Grandidier.  In  the  above  paragraph  I  am  specially 
noticing  the  work  of  English  labourers  in  the  field  of  Madagascar  geography. 

^  This  paper  forms  the  first  chapter  of  The  Great  African  Island. 


IMERINA,  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCE.  17 

and  evangelising  by  doing  useful  geographical  work,  as  well 
as  by  contributing  to  fuller  knowledge  of  the  natural  history 
of  the  island. 

During  the  progress  of  the  Franco-Malagasy  war  in  1884, 
an  American  naval  officer,  Lieut.  Mason  Shufeldt,  made  a 
journey  from  Morondava,  on  the  west  coast,  to  Antananarivo, 
I  have,  however,  been  unable  to  obtain  any  account  of  Lieut. 
Shufeldt's  travels,  although,  no  doubt,  full  reports  have  been 
presented  to  the  United  States  Government. 

In  1886  my  friend,  the  Rev.  R.  Baron,  F.L.S.,  made  a  long 
journey  through  the  Antsihanaka  province  northwards,  and 
crossing  to  the  north-west  coast,  by  the  districts  called  Androna 
and  Befandriana,  to  the  Hova  garrison  town  of  Anorontsanga. 
The  most  interesting  discovery  was  the  former  existence  of  a 
large  lake,  running  north  and  south  for  more  than  two  hundred 
miles,  with  a  breadth  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  miles.  Of  this 
lake,  the  present  lake  of  Alaotra,  in  Antsihanaka,  about  twenty- 
five  miles  long,  is  the  small  and  still  slowly  diminishing  remnant. 
Mr.  Baron  traced  indubitable  proofs  of  the  former  height  of 
the  waters  of  this  ancient  lake  at  no  less  than  1,140  feet  above 
the  present  level  of  the  Alaotra,  and  he  was  enabled  to  make 
important  additions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  geology  of 
Madagascar,  which  he  communicated  in  a  paper  to  the  Geo- 
logical Society  in  1889. 

During  1887  Neilsen-Lund  visited  a  part  of  the  Bara 
province,  and  also  the  district  inhabited  by  the  "emigrant 
Tanosy,"  being  for  some  time  in  no  little  peril  from  the  un- 
friendly Bara  people.  He  then  turned  to  the  south-east,  over 
mountainous  and  desert  country,  eventually  reaching  the  Hova 
military  post  of  Fort  Dauphin,  at  the  south-eastern  corner  of 
the  island.  Unfortunately  his  journey,  although  very  interest- 
ing, added  little  to  the  map  of  Madagascar. 

The  same  must  be  also  said  about  two  journeys  made  in 
1888  by  the  Rev.  E.  O.  MacMahon,  of  the  Anglican  mission, 
to  the  west  of  the  island  into  the  Sakalava  country,  to  the 

3 


1 8  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

district  occupied  by  the  Betsiriry  tribe.  In  1888  also  the 
Antanambalana  river,  flowing  into  Antongil  Bay,  was  sur- 
veyed by  Mr.  L.  H.  Ransome,  and  a  detailed  map  of  its  course, 
with  descriptive  paper,  appeared  in  the  Proc.  Roy.  Geogr.  Soc. 
for  May  of  the  following  year. 

A  fully  equipped  expedition,  under  MM.  Catat  and  Maistre, 
arrived  in  Madagascar  in  1889,  and  explored  portions  of 
the  eastern  side  of  the  island,  and  crossed  the  previously  un- 
mapped region  of  the  extreme  south.  Excursions  were  made 
in  various  directions  from  the  capital,  and  then  the  old  route, 
from  Imerina  to  Tamatave  was  explored  ;  this  proved  to  be 
difficult  to  traverse,  taking  about  three  times  as  many  days  as 
the  usual  route.  The  principal  journey  was  through  the  Betsileo 
province  into  the  Bara  country,  and  then  into  that  of  the 
"  emigrant  Tanosy."  The  sources  of  the  river  Onilahy  were 
discovered,  and  important  corrections  made  in  the  mapping  of 
its  course.  The  region  to  Fort  Dauphin  was  crossed,  and  the 
fertile  valley  of  Ambolo  visited  ;  and  the  expedition  returned 
to  Betsileo  through  the  Antaisaka  country.  The  botanical  and 
natural  history  collections  made  by  MM.  Catat  and  Maistre  are 
extensive  and  valuable,  as  well  as  those  relative  to  anthropology 
and  ethnology ;  and  these  have  now  been  described  in  French, 
English,  and  German  geographical  and  other  scientific  journals. 

In  1 89 1  another  long  journey,  covering  more  than  a  thousand 
miles  of  country,  was  made  by  Mr.  Baron  along  the  north-east 
and  north-west  coasts  of  Madagascar,  as  far  as  the  extreme 
northerly  point  of  the  island.  Detailed  accounts  of  this  journey 
have  been  published  :  two,  giving  information  as  to  topography, 
ethnology,  and  philology,  in  the  Antananarivo  Annual  for  1892 
and  1893,  under  the  title  of  "Twelve  Hundred  Miles  in  a 
Palanquin " ;  and  another,  with  maps,  in  Quart.  Journ.  Geol. 
Soc.  1895,  giving  the  geological  results  of  the  journey.  (This 
is  reproduced  in  the  last  number  of  the  Annual,  xix.,  1895.) 

In  concluding  this  brief  sketch  of  the  most  important 
journeys  made  in   Madagascar  during  the  last  few  years,  I 


IMERINA,  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCE.  19 

may  also  mention  the  issue  by  the  eminent  French  traveller 
and  scientist,  M.  Alfred  Grandidier  (Member  of  the  Institute), 
of  the  geographical  section  of  his  great  work  on  Madagascar, 
in  from  twenty  to  thirty  quarto  volumes,  still  in  progress. 
In  1879  he  published  the  first  part  of  an  atlas  of  ancient  and 
early  maps  of  the  island,  including  that  of  the  Arabic  geo- 
grapher Edrisi  (11 53),  the  curious  wall-map  at  Hereford 
Cathedral  {circa  1300),  and  other  quaint  and  interesting 
mediaeval  maps,  down  to  those — often  very  erroneous  ones, 
mere  fancy  sketches — put  forth  as  "  maps  of  Madagascar,"  up 
to  as  recent  a  date  as  thirty  years  ago.  In  1885  M.  Grandidier 
issued  a  volume  of  text,  giving  a  detailed  historical  account 
of  Madagascar  map-making,  as  well  as  a  minute  list  of  the 
geographical  features,  place-names,  &c.,  of  the  entire  coast-line 
of  the  island.  In  1894  a  much  enlarged  edition  of  this  work 
was  published,  together  with  the  second  part  of  the  atlas  of 
maps,  giving  fac-similes  of  other  ancient  and  curious  maps 
of  the  island,  as  well  as  of  various  portions  of  the  coast, 
harbours,  islands,  &c.  In  1 880  he  published  a  map  of  the 
Imerina  province  to  a  scale  of  and  in  1886  a  map 

of  the  remarkable  chain  of  lagoons  on  the  east  coast,  extending 
for  about  three  hundred  miles.  M.  Grandidier  is  now  putting 
the  finishing  touches  to  his  atlas  of  Madagascar  maps,  in  which 
he  will  give,  to  a  large  scale,  the  results  of  all  his  own  explora- 
tions, and  include  all  geographical  data  of  any  value  supplied 
by  other  travellers  up  to  the  present  time. 

The  eastern  port  of  Tamatave,  not  far  from  the  centre  of 
that  side  of  the  island,  is  still,  as  it  has  been  for  more  than  three 
hundred  years,  the  usual  place  of  landing  for  all  those  who 
are  going  to  the  central  province  of  Imerina  and  to  the  capital 
of  the  country.  Travelling  is  still  in  a  rather  primitive  stage 
in  Madagascar.  There  are  no  roads  practicable  for  wheeled 
vehicles,  and  except  a  few  bullock  carts  on  the  level  grassy 
plains  of  the  east  coast,  there  is  nothing  in  the  way  of  carriage 


20 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


or  waggon  for  the  use  of  travellers.  Europeans,  therefore,  as 
well  as  all  well-to-do  Malagasy,  make  use  of  the  light  palanquin 
or  filanjdna,  carried  on  the  shoulders  of  four  stout  bearers,  who 
mostly  belong  to  the  tribes  formerly  conquered  by  the  Hova. 
On  long  journeys  a  double  set  of  men  is  usually  taken  with 
each  palanquin,  while  bed  and  bedding,  stores  and  clothing, 
and  all  other  necessaries,  must  also  be  carried  by  other  bearers. 
Travelling  is  tedious  as  well  as  expensive. 

The  road  from  Tamatave  to  Antananarivo  passes  first 
for  about  sixty  miles,  or  two  days'  journey,  southward,  along 
the  coast,  generally  between  the  line  of  lagoons  and  the  sea. 
The  path  is  perfectly  level,  along  greensward,  dotted  with 
clumps  of  trees  and  patches  of  forest,  with  the  lagoons  on  one 
side,  often  expanding  into  broad  lakes  of  calm  water,  while  on 
the  other  we  have  the  Indian  Ocean,  with  the  never-ceasing 
surf,  driven  by  the  south-east  trade  winds. 

At  Andovoranto,  canoes  are  hired  for  a  half-day's  voyage 
up  the  river  Iharoka  and  one  of  its  tributaries.  The  palanquin 
has,  however,  soon  to  be  resumed,  and  we  begin  to  traverse 
hilly  country.  Here,  for  about  a  day's  journey,  we  are  in  the 
region  of  the  Traveller's-tree,  the  Bamboo,  and  the  rofia  palm, 
which  fill  every  hollow,  and  give  a  special  character  to  the 
scenery.  We  gradually  get  higher  until,  as  we  approach  the  out- 
skirts of  the  forest-belt,  we  are  about  1,300  feet  above  sea-level. 

The  comparatively  easy  travelling  is  now  succeeded  by 
three  days'  very  hard  work  for  our  bearers,  as  we  cross  the 
forest  which  extends  round  so  large  a  portion  of  the  coast 
regions  of  Madagascar.  The  path  goes  up  and  down  the  hills 
at  very  steep  gradients  ;  and  these  ascents  and  descents  are, 
after  two  or  three  days'  rain,  just  slopes  of  adhesive  slippery 
clay,  up  and  down  which  our  men  toil  heavily  with  their  loads. 
The  path,  although  apparently  descending  as  often  as  it 
ascends,  is  really  rising  to  a  higher  level,  and  by  the  time  we 
get  clear  of  forest,  we  have  ascended  the  first  great  step  upwards 
to  the  interior  highland. 


IMERINA,  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCE.  21 

Half  a  day's  journey  over  the  Ankay  plain,  and  then  across 
the  Mangoro  river,  brings  us  to  the  foot  of  the  second  step  of 
our  road.  Then  comes  the  narrow  belt  of  upper  forest,  very 
beautiful,  but  with  as  difficult  a  path  through  it  as  on  any  part 
of  the  route  ;  and  then  we  emerge  on  the  bare  hills  of  the  upper 
region,  and  are  in  the  province  of  Imerina. 

This  central  region  of  Madagascar  is  sometimes  termed  by 
the  people  themselves  Ankova,  that  is,  "  The  place  of  the  Hova," 
the  dominant  tribe  of  the  island,  who,  advancing  from  the  East 
Coast,  drove  out  the  aboriginal  inhabitants,  the  Vazimba,  and 
made  it  their  home,  probably  many  hundred  years  ago.  It 
is,  however,  usually  called  Imerina,  a  name  as  to  whose  origin 
there  have  been  many  conjectures  ;  the  most  likely  one  of  these 
appears  to  be  that  it  is  from  a  Malagasy  root,  erina,  meaning 
"  elevated,"  "  prominent,"  "  conspicuous."  It  is  difficult  to  give 
the  exact  boundaries  or  extent  of  Imerina,  as  Malagasy  pro- 
vinces are  not  defined  as  minutely  as  English  counties.  On 
the  east  it  is  marked  by  the  line  of  upper  forest ;  on  the 
north  and  west  it  shades  off  into  the  uninhabited  region  which 
there  divides  the  Hova  from  other  tribes  ;  while  on  the  south 
it  ends  at  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Ankaratra  mountains,  and 
the  thinly  peopled  region  which  separates  the  Hova  territory 
from  that  of  the  northern  Betsileo.  Roughly  speaking,  Imerina 
forms  an  irregular  parallelogram,  extending  about  one  hundred 
miles  north  and  south,  and  about  seventy  miles  from  east  to 
west,  with  an  area  of  about  7,000  square  miles — in  other  words, 
it  is  considerably  larger  than  the  county  of  York. 

Imerina  is  a  mountainous  country,  with  but  little  level 
ground  except  on  the  western  side  of  Antananarivo,  where 
the  dried-up  bed  of  an  extensive  ancient  lake  forms  the  great 
rice-plain  known  as  Betsimitatatra.  This  is  the  granary  of  the 
capital,  and  doubtless  accounts  for  its  position,  and  for  the 
comparatively  dense  population  around  it  to  the  north,  west, 
and  south.  But  there  are  innumerable  valleys  where  the  slopes 
are  terraced  with  rice-plots,  like  great  green  staircases,  where 


22  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

the  grain  is  first  sown  broadcast,  and  from  which  the  young 
plants  are  taken  up  and  transplanted  in  the  larger  fields  along 
the  banks  of  the  rivers,  and  in  the  beds  of  small  dried-up 
lakes  of  ancient  date.  There  are  numerous  lofty  hills,  of  which 
Angavokely  to  the  east,  Ambohimiangara  in  the  extreme  west, 
Iharanandriana  to  the  south,  Milangana,  Ambohimanoa,  and 
Andringitra  more  central,  and  Ambohipaniry  and  Vohilena 
to  the  north,  are  the  most  prominent,  all  forming  capital 
landmarks  and  points  from  which  angles  can  be  taken  in  filling 
up  details  of  the  map.  Then  on  the  south-west  the  whole 
province  is  dominated  by  the  central  mass  of  Ankaratra,  the 
peaks  of  which  form  the  highest  points  in  the  island,  although 
they  are  a  little  under  9,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Mr.  Baron 
calls  it  "the  wreck  of  a  huge  but  ancient  sub-aerial  volcano." 
It  covers  an  area  of  from  fifty  to  sixty  square  miles,  and  its 
highest  peaks,  called  Tsiafakafo,  Tsiafajavona,  and  Ambohimi- 
randrina,  are  visible  for  an  immense  distance,  especially  to  the 
west.  Imerina  is  from  4,000  to  4,500  feet  above  the  sea  level, 
so  that,  although  well  within  the  tropics,  it  enjoys  a  temperate 
climate,  made  cool  and  bracing  in  the  cooler  season  by  the 
south-east  trade  winds  which  come  fresh  and  moist  over  the 
forest  belt  and  the  wooded  eastern  plains.  The  atmosphere 
is  wonderfully  clear,  so  that  hills  many  miles  away  stand  out 
with  a  distinct  outline  that  is  very  deceptive  to  those  newly  come 
from  our  more  misty  air  and  our  grey  English  skies.  The 
aspect  of  this  region  is  bare,  as  it  is  destitute  of  wood,  except 
in  the  hollows,  although  there  are  patches  of  forest  still  left  in 
the  northern  parts  of  the  province.  There  is  a  great  extent  of 
moor-like  hills,  so  that  but  for  the  brilliant  sunshine  and  the 
generally  clear  skies,  Imerina  would,  like  much  of  the  other 
central  portions  of  Madagascar,  be  somewhat  dreary,  especially 
as  the  grass  gets  brown  and  parched  towards  the  middle  of  the 
dry  season. 

The  geological  nature  of  the  central  region  is  shown  by  the 
numerous  masses  of  granite  or  gneiss  rock  which  form  the 


IMERINA,  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCE.  23 

summits  of  all  the  hills.  In  many  cases  these  take  the  form  of 
enormous  "  bosses,"  or  rounded  hills  of  rock  ;  in  others  they  have 
the  appearance  of  Titanic  castles  ;  while  others,  again,  might  be 
taken,  in  certain  aspects,  to  be  stupendous  cathedrals.  Over- 
lying the  primary  rocks  there  is  an  immense  extent  of  what  I 
must  call  clay,  although  it  is  not  true  clay,  but  appears  to  be 
decomposed  granite.  This  is  usually  deep  red  in  colour,  from 
the  large  amount  of  iron  oxide,  although  it  is  occasionally 
brown,  and  sometimes  white,  like  China  clay.  Iron  is  abundant, 
and  gold  has  recently  been  discovered  in  many  places.  Quartz 
in  many  varieties,  quartzite,  graphite,  galena,  copper,  saltpetre, 
tourmaline,  and  some  other  minerals,  are  also  found  in  Imerina. 

Two  groups  of  ancient  and  extinct  volcanoes  which  were 
described  by  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Mullens  hardly  come  into  any 
description  of  Imerina  proper,  as  one  of  them  is  just  outside  its 
western  boundary  and  the  other  group  is  beyond  the  Ankaratra 
mountains,  to  the  south-west.  There  are,  however,  within  the 
district  some  detached  hills  which  appear  to  be  old  volcanic 
vents ;  and  these,  with  occasional  lava  flows,  as  well  as  basaltic 
dykes  in  several  places,  give  evidence  of  ancient  subterranean 
forces,  now  shown  only  by  slight  earthquake  shocks,  and  by  hot 
springs  in  certain  localities. 

The  water-parting  of  the  whole  island  lies  much  nearer  its 
eastern  than  its  western  side,  so  that  all  the  largest  rivers  flow 
across  Madagascar  and  fall  into  the  Mozambique  Channel.  The 
head-waters  of  the  two  chief  rivers  of  Imerina,  the  Ikopa,  and 
the  Betsiboka,  and  of  their  numerous  affluents,  are  therefore  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  province.  The  Ikopa,  fed  by  the  Sisaony, 
the  Andromba,  the  Mamba,  and  other  streams,  flow  through 
the  fertile  plain  of  Betsimitatatra,  going  north-west,  and  is 
joined  by  the  Betsiboka  further  north ;  the  united  streams,  now 
known  by  the  latter  name,  falling  into  the  head  of  the  Bay  of 
Bembatoka.  The  province  is  thus  well  watered  by  numerous 
rivers,  although  the  annual  rainfall  only  averages  about  53 
inches  at  Antananarivo. 


24  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

The  only  lake  of  any  size  in  Imerina  is  that  of  Itasy,  on  its 
extreme  western  limits  ;  close  to  it,  on  the  west,  are  numerous 
extinct  craters  ;  indeed,  the  lake  itself  has  probably  been  formed 
by  the  sinking  of  the  ground,  consequent  on  the  discharge  of  so 
much  matter  from  these  old  volcanoes. 

The  name  Imerina  is  used  by  the  Malagasy  in  two  senses  : 
one,  with  a  wider  meaning,  including  the  districts  of  Imamo  to 
the  west,  and  Valalafotsy  to  the  north-west,  and  including  all  the 
Hova  people ;  and  then  it  is  also  used  more  restrictedly  for  the 
part  which  is  exclusive  of  these  two  divisions  of  the  country. 
This  narrower  Imerina  is  divided  into  six  sections,  known  as 
"  Imerina-enin-tbkol'  and  comprising  Avaradrano,  which  includes 
the  capital  (to  the  north-east),  Vakintsisaony  (south-east), 
Marovatana  (north-west),  Ambodirano  (south-west),  Vonizongo 
(further  north-west),  and  Vakinankaratra  (further  south-west), 
which  last  division  is  named  from  the  mountain  mass  which  it 
includes,  and  which  cuts  it  off  from  the  others. 

These  divisions  are  largely  tribal,  and  are  used  by  the  native 
government  in  arranging  the  different  shares  of  military  levies, 
taxation,  and  all  the  various  unpaid  and  forced  service  due  by 
the  people  to  their  sovereign. 

There  are  no  means  of  ascertaining  with  certainty  the  popula- 
tion of  Imerina,  as  no  census  has  ever  been  taken.  But  from 
calculations  which  have  been  made  as  to  the  number  of  villages 
and  houses,  and  the  average  occupants  of  a  house,  it  is  believed 
that  the  population  of  the  province  is  about  i,ioo,cxx).i  Antana- 
narivo is  by  far  the  largest  town  in  Imerina  or  in  Madagascar. 
There  is  hardly  any  other  town  of  great  size,  although  there  is 
a  considerable  number  of  large  villages,  and  these  are  rather 
closely  crowded  together  in  some  parts,  especially  to  the  north 
and  north-west  of  the  capital.  Several  of  these  places  were 
formerly  of  greater  relative  importance,  as  they  were  the  capitals 
of  the  many  small  states,  or  "kingdoms,"  into  which  Imerina 

The  recent  census — March,  1896 — gives  only  600,000  souls  as  the  population 
of  the  province  Imerina. — Ed. 


IMERINA,  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCE.  2$ 

was  anciently  divided,  before  the  supreme  authority  became 
centred  in  the  chief  of  Antananarivo.  Of  these  former  chief 
towns  the  following  are  the  most  noteworthy:  Ambohimanga, 
a  place  which  still  retains  a  nominal  equality  in  royal  speeches 
with  Antananarivo  a  picturesque  old  town  built  on  a  lofty  hill 
surrounded  with  woods,  about  eleven  miles  north  of  the  modern 
capital  ;  also  Ambohidratrimo,  Ambohidrabiby,  Ilafy,  Alasora, 
and  some  others.  In  former  times,  every  royal  speech  men- 
tioned twelve  old  towns  or  hills  ("  Ny  Tendronibbhitra  rba  ambin 
ny  fblo "),  each  of  which  had  a  semi-sacred  character  as  being 
the  seat  of  ancient  chiefs  ;  the  places  just  mentioned  were  in- 
cluded in  these  twelve,  but  others  are  now  mere  hamlets,  if  not 
as  much  deserted  villages  as  Old  Sarum  was  in  pre-Reform  days 
in  England. 

All  the  ancient  towns  and  villages  in  the  interior  of  Mada- 
gascar were  built  on  the  top  of  hills,  sometimes  of  considerable 
height.  This  was  of  course  for  security  against  enemies  in  the 
former  warlike  times,  when  every  petty  state  was  frequently 
fighting  with  its  neighbours,  like  the  barons  of  European  castles 
in  the  mediaeval  period.  Protection  was  further  given  by  deep 
fosses  dug  out  of  the  hard  red  clay,  and  surrounding  the  towns. 
These  are  frequently  double,  or  even  treble,  one  outside  the 
other,  and  must  have  formed  a  very  effectual  defence  in  the  days 
when  firearms  were  unknown,  and  especially  when  helped  by  the 
earthen  ramparts  often  added  inside  the  ditches  from  the  material 
dug  out.  Some  of  these  fosses  look  like  a  railway  cutting 
through  red  sandstone,  and  although  they  are  in  many  cases 
probably  two  or  three  hundred  years  old,  the  sides  are  generally 
as  perpendicular  and  unbroken  as  when  first  excavated.  A 
narrow  bridge  of  the  red  earth  leads  to  the  gateway,  which  is 
formed  of  massive  blocks  of  rock.  Two  different  forms  of  gate- 
way are  found  in  these  old  towns  :  one  kind  is  defended  by  a 
great  circular  slab  of  stone  lo  or  12  feet  in  diameter,  which,  in 
time  of  war,  was  rolled  between  upright  stones,  so  as  to  effec- 
tually block  up  the  entrance.    Another  kind  of  gateway  was 


26  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

formed  by  massive  upright  monoliths,  between  which  heavy- 
wooden  gates  were  fixed.  In  many  cases  there  is  a  treble  gate- 
way of  this  kind,  with  a  narrow  passage  between  each  gate,  so 
that  the  enemy  could  be  speared  from  above,  if  the  first  or  even 
the  second  line  of  defence  had  been  broken  through.  Many  of 
these  old  towns  are  now  deserted,  but  their  ancient  defences  form 
the  chief  antiquities  of  Madagascar,  and  are  interesting  memorials 
of  a  state  of  society  now  passed  away  in  the  central  provinces. 

The  ancient  graves  of  the  Vazimba,  the  aboriginal  inhabi- 
tants of  the  interior,  are  found  scattered  over  the  central  province. 
These  are  shapeless  heaps  of  stone,  generally  overshadowed 
by  a  fano  tree,  a  species  of  acacia,  which  has  a  semi-sacred 
character,  its  seeds  being  used  in  divination.  Could  these  graves, 
like  our  ancient  English  barrows,  be  opened,  doubtless  much 
light  would  be  thrown  on  the  rather  difficult  question  of  the  affi- 
nities of  these  Vazimba;  but  to  meddle  with  any  tomb,  much  more 
one  of  these  ancient  ones,  is  one  of  the  most  heinous  offences 
among  the  Malagasy.^  A  considerable  number  of  upright 
stones,  termed  vatolahy  (lit.  "  male  stones "),  huge  undressed 
blocks  of  granite,  are  also  found  on  the  hills  and  downs.  These 
are  memorials  of  former  chieftains,  or  of  battles  of  the  old  times. 

As  regards  maps  of  Imerina,  I  believe  that  I  was  the  first  (in 
1867)  to  make  a  sketch-map  of  the  country  round  Antananarivo. 
This  was,  however,  made  chiefly  to  show  the  mission  stations  of 
the  London  Missionary  Society.  Parts  of  the  province  to  the 
south-west  were  subsequently  given  much  more  fully  by  Mr. 
J.  S.  Sewell  and  Mr.  W.  Johnson  ;  but  the  first  detailed  map 
of  Imerina  and  the  surrounding  regions  was  published  by  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Mullens  in  1875,  as  the  result  of  a  large  number  of 
observations  taken  by  himself,  and  founded  on  positions  fixed 
by  Mr.  James  Cameron.  A  map  to  a  much  larger  scale 
(i  :  200,000)  was  published  by  M.  Grandidier  in  1880;  and  he 
issued  more  recently  (1883)  a  beautiful  hypsometrical  map  of 
the  province,  showing  by  graduated  tints  the  heights  of  every 
*  For  fuller  information  as  to  the  Vazimba,  see  subsequent  chapter. 


im^:rina,  the  central  province. 


27 


part  of  the  country  from  the  river-beds  to  the  summits  of 
Ankaratra.  "  This,"  says  M.  Grandidier,  "  is,  I  believe,  the  first 
and  only  contour  map  which  has  been  made  of  an  uncivilised 
country  on  such  a  large  scale.  This  map  enables  one  to  see  at 
a  glance  the  zones  of  altitude  characteristic  of  this  province, 
which  is  so  mountainous  and  desolate  beyond  the  great  plain 
west  of  Antananarivo  ;  and  it  shows  clearly  the  manner  in  which 
the  waters  part  themselves." 

A  few  words  may  be  here  added  as  to  the  external  aspects 
of  an  Imerina  village.  As  already  mentioned,  all  the  ancient 
villages  and  towns  were  built  on  the  tops  of  high  hills,  and  are 
consequently  rather  difficult  to  approach  ;  and  although  a  great 
many  of  them  are  now  deserted,  and  the  more  modern  villages 
are  built  either  on  the  plains  or  on  the  lower  rising  grounds, 
numbers  of  the  old  places  still  remain  inhabited  ;  and  the  people 
who  live  in  them  must  have  a  weary  climb  every  evening  as 
they  go  home  from  their  work  in  the  rice-fields,  or  return  from 
a  neighbouring  village  or  market.  Even  the  capital  city, 
Antananarivo,  is  built  on  the  top  and  the  sides  of  a  long,  narrow 
ridge  rising  about  600  feet  above  the  plain  below.  The  old 
capital,  Ambohimanga,  is  on  an  equally  high  hill,  and  so  are 
most  of  the  ancient  and  famous  towns  and  villages.  Some  of 
these  hills  rise  to  700  or  800  feet  in  height ;  and  a  few  years  ago 
I  had  to  climb  up  to  a  village  called  Vohilena,  which  is  built  on 
a  tremendous  hill  no  less  than  1,500  feet  above  the  valley  at  its 
foot.  Never  shall  I  forget  my  ascent  up  its  steep  side  in  the 
darkness,  without  a  guide,  and  unable  to  find  any  path  in  the 
woods  that  cover  its  slopes  ! 

The  deep  fosses  which  surround  these  old  villages  have  already 
been  alluded  to.  Most  of  them  are  from  20  to  30  feet  wide  and 
as  many  feet  deep,  although  sometimes  they  are  much  deeper. 
But  although  so  deep,  these  trenches  are  not  full  of  water,  for 
this  is  always  drawn  off  by  another  trench  leading  down  the 
hillside.  They  are,  however,  of  course  damp,  and  good  soil 
gradually  increases  there,  so  that  ferns  and  wild  plants  grow 


28  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

luxuriantly ;  and  the  bottom  of  the  fosse  therefore  forms  a 
plantation,  in  which  peach,  banana,  guava,  and  other  fruit-trees 
are  cultivated,  as  well  as  coffee,  arums,  and  a  variety  of  vege- 
tables. Tall  trees  of  other  kinds  also  grow  there,  so  that  these 
hddy,  as  they  are  called,  are  often  by  far  the  prettiest  feature  of 
the  village.  On  many  hill-tops  in  Imerina,  where  no  villages 
now  exist,  the  hddy  may  be  seen  from  a  great  distance,  scoring 
the  hillsides,  and  showing  that  in  former  times  a  village  crowned 
the  summit. 

In  some  parts  of  the  central  provinces  of  Madagascar  there 
is  no  deep  fosse,  such  as  those  just  described,  but  the  village  is 
protected  by  a  dense  and  wide  plantation  of  prickly-pear.^  This 
shrub  is  armed  all  over  with  spines  and  prickles  2  inches 
long,  sharp  as  a  needle  and  somewhat  poisonous.  The  thick, 
fleshy,  twisted  stems,  the  gaily-tinted  flowers,  and  even  the 
pear-shaped  fruits,  are  all  armed  with  spines  and  stinging  hairs  ; 
and  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  get  rid  of  the  minute  little  needles  if 
they  once  get  into  one's  skin.  So  it  is  easy  to  see  that  a  hedge 
of^this  prickly-pear,  several  feet  wide  and  8  or  lo  feet  high, 
is  a  very  effectual  defence  against  enemies  or  robbers,  especially 
when  it  is  remembered  that  the  majority  of  people  wear  no  shoes 
and  so  have  no  protection  for  their  bare  legs  and  feet.  In 
many  places,  instead  of  prickly-pear,  the  fence  round  the  village 
is  made  of  tsiafakbviby  ("  impassable  by  cattle  "),  a  shrub  with 
bright  yellow  flowers  and  full  of  hook-like  prickles.^ 

Now  let  us  get  up  into  the  village  and  see  what  it  looks  like. 
Crossing  the  deep  hddy  by  a  kind  of  bridge  of  earth,  we  come 
to  the  entrance  or  vdvahddy  ("  mouth  of  the  fosse  ").  This  is 
generally  a  narrow  gateway  formed  of  roughly-built  stonework  ; 
and  on  its  inner  side,  in  a  groove,  is  a  great  circular  slab  of 
granite,  for  rolling  across  the  opening,  so  as  to  quite  close  it  up. 
But  for  many  years  past,  in  most  villages,  these  great  slabs  of 
stone  have  been  unused,  and  the  grooves  are  filled  up  with  dust 

^  Opiintia  Dillcnii,  Haw. 

2  The  Mysore  thorn,  Cctsaipinia  scpiaria,  Roxb. 


IMERINA,  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCE.  29 

and  dirt,  so  that  it  is  not  very  easy  to  move  the  stone  out  of  its 
place.  In  many  villages  the  great  stone  lies  on  the  ground,  and 
the  children  play  games  upon  it,  showing  that  for  a  long  time 
there  has  been  no  war  in  the  interior  of  the  island,  but  people 
have  been  able  to  live  in  security  and  peace,  "  none  daring  to 
make  them  afraid."  In  some  cases,  instead  of  a  door  at  the 
gateway,  a  number  of  short  poles  are  hung  from  a  cross-piece  at 
the  top,  which  passes  through  a  hole  in  each  of  them  ;  and  one 
has  to  hold  up  two  or  three  of  them  in  order  to  pass  through. 
This  kind  of  gate  is  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the 
pigs  and  sheep  from  getting  in  and  out  of  the  village.  In  some 
parts  of  Imerina,  to  the  west  and  north,  where  there  is  frequent 
danger  from  roving  parties  of  robbers,  the  villages  are  still  care- 
fully guarded,  and  many  of  them  have  a  treble  gateway,  with 
three  pairs  of  thick  wooden  doors,  and  connected  by  a  kind  of 
tunnel. 

Here,  however,  we  are  at  last  inside  the  village,  and  we 'see  at 
once  that  there  are  no  streets  intersecting  it.  The  houses  are 
built  without  any  order  or  regularity,  except  in  one  point, 
namely,  that  all  the  old-fashioned  houses  are  built  north  and 
south,  and  that  they  have  their  single  door  and  window  always 
on  the  west  side,  so  as  to  be  protected  from  the  cold  and  keen 
south-east  trade-winds,  which  blow  over  Imerina  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year.  The  houses  are  mostly  made  of  the 
hard  red  earth,  laid  in  courses  of  a  foot  or  so  high.  They  are 
chiefly  of  one  storey  and  of  one  room,  but  they  generally  have  a 
floor  in  the  roof,  which  is  used  for  cooking,  and  are  sometimes 
divided  into  two  or  three  rooms  by  rush  and  mat  partitions. 
On  the  east  of  Imerina,  near  the  forest,  the  houses  are  made  of 
rough  wooden  framing,  filled  up  with  bamboo  or  rush,  and  often 
plastered  with  cow-dung ;  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
capital  a  great  many  houses  are  now  built  of  sun-dried  bricks 
in  two  storeys,  with  several  rooms  and  often  with  tiled  roofs. 
These,  however,  belong  to  the  richer  people. 

Ambohitritankady,  one  of  the  villages  in  my  mission  district, 


30  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

is  on  a  high  hill,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  village  are  ten  large 
houses  of  massive  timber  framing  and  with  very  high-pitched 
roofs,  with  long  "  horns  "  at  the  gables,  arranged  five  on  each 
side  of  a  long  oblong  space  sunk  a  couple  of  feet  below  the 
ground.  Here,  in  former  times,  bull-fights  took  place,  and 
various  games  and  amusements  were  carried  on.  One  of  the 
houses,  where  the  chief  himself  resided,  is  much  larger  than  the 
rest,  and  the  corner  posts,  as  well  as  the  three  great  central 
posts  supporting  the  ridge,  are  very  large,  massive  pieces  of 
timber.  It  was  all  in  one  great  room  without  any  partitions, 
the  whole  being  well  floored  with  wood,  and  the  walls  covered 
with  neat  mats.  Such  fine  old  houses  are  now,  however,  be- 
coming very  rare,  and  are  being  fast  superseded  by  much  less 
picturesque,  but  perhaps  more  comfortable,  as  well  as  cheaper, 
houses  of  sun-dried  or  burnt  brick. 

The  houses  of  most  villages  are  scattered  about  the  place  in 
a  very  irregular  fashion.  There  is  no  privacy  or  retirement 
about  them,  no  backyard  or  outbuildings,  although  occasionally 
low  walls  do  make  a  kind  of  enclosure  round  some  of  them. 
Here  and  there  among  the  houses  are  square  pits,  5  or  6 
feet  deep  and  8  or  10  feet  square,  called  fdhitra.  These 
are  pens  for  the  oxen,  often  very  fine  animals,  with  enormous 
horns  and  humps,  which  are  kept  in  them  to  be  fattened,  mostly 
for  the  national  feast  of  the  Fandroana  ("  the  bathing  ")  at  the 
New  Year.  All  sorts  of  rubbish  and  filth  accumulate  ;  there  are 
no  sanitary  arrangements ;  frequently  the  cattle  are  penned  for 
the  night  in  a  part  of  the  enclosure,  and  the  cow-dung  makes  it 
very  muddy  in  wet  weather,  and  raises  clouds  of  dust  when  it  is 
dry.  Frequently  the  cow-dung  is  carefully  collected  and  made 
into  circular  cakes  of  6  or  8  inches  diameter,  which  are  then 
stuck  on  the  walls  of  the  houses  to  dry.  It  is  afterwards  used 
as  fuel  for  burning  off  large  slabs  of  the  hard  gneiss  rock,  which 
are  employed  by  the  people  in  making  their  tombs. 

The  pits  in  which  the  people  store  their  rice  are  bottle- 
shaped  holes,  from  8  to  10  feet  deep,  dug  out  of  the  hard  red 


IMERINA,  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCE.  3 1 

earth,  and  will  contain  a  large  quantity  of  grain.  They  are 
closed  up  by  a  flat  stone  and  covered  with  earth,  so  it  is  not 
easy  for  a  stranger  to  know  where  the  rice-store  is.  In  former 
times  these  pits  were  now  and  then  used  as  places  of  refuge,  and 
even  of  worship,  by  Christian  people  in  the  time  of  persecution ; 
and  occasionally  those  who  had  offended  the  sovereign  were 
placed  in  the  pits,  which  were  partly  filled  up  with  earth,  boiling 
water  being  then  poured  over  them  until  they  were  killed. 

In  the  centre  of  the  village  may  often  be  seen  the  large 
family  tomb  of  the  chief  man  of  the  place,  the  owner  of  the 
land  and  the  rice-fields  in  the  neighbourhood.  This  is  a  struc- 
ture of  dressed  or  of  rough  stonework,  from  12  to  20  feet 
square,  and  about  6  to  8  feet  high.  Generally  it  has  two  or 
more  stages  diminishing  in  area,  and  frequently  at  the  east 
end  is  a  kind  of  headstone,  in  modern  tombs  sometimes  with  a 
name  and  date  cut  upon  it.  These  tombs  are  vaults  made  of 
great  undressed  slabs  of  blue  rock,  partly  sunk  under  ground, 
and  with  stone  shelves  on  which  the  corpses,  wrapped  in  silk 
cloths,  are  laid.  The  steps  down  to  the  vault  are  always  on  the 
west  side,  and  the  door  is  a  massive  stone  slab  turning  on  pivots 
at  the  top  and  bottom.  In  the  case  of  people  who  are  Andrianay 
or  of  noble  birth,  the  stonework  is  surmounted  by  a  small  wooden 
house,  with  thatched  or  shingled  roof  and  a  door,  but  no  window. 
This  is  called  trdno  masina  ("  sacred  house  ")  or  trctno  manara 
("cold  house  "),  because  it  has  no  hearth  or  fire.  In  some  villages^ 
where  the  people  are  almost  all  of  high  rank,  a  line  of  these 
tombs,  with  their  little  wooden  houses,  may  be  observed. 

Seen  from  a  distance,  these  Malagasy  villages  often  look 
very  pretty  and  picturesque,  for  "  distance  lends  enchantment  to 
the  view."  Round  some  of  them  tall  trees,  called  Avidvy,^  a 
species  of  fig-tree,  grow,  which  are  something  like  an  English 
elm  in  appearance.  In  others  one  or  two  gresit  A  jndntana^  trees 
may  be  seen  ;  these  are  also  a  species  of  fig-tree,  and  have  large 
and  glossy  leaves.  A  beautiful  tree  called  Zdhana  3  is  also 
'  Ficns  iiicgapoda,  Baker.    -  F.  Baroni,  Baker.    3  Phyllarthron  Bojcrianiim,  D.C. 


32  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

common,  with  hundreds  of  large  pink  flowers  ;  and  in  the  fosses 
the  A^niana,^  a  tall  tree  nettle  with  large,  deeply-cut,  and  velvety- 
leaves,  with  stinging  hairs,  frequently  grows.  Many  kinds  of 
shrubs  often  make  the  place  gay  with  flowers  ;  but  these  all 
grow  wild,  and  the  people  have  not  yet  learned  to  plant  flowers 
in  beds  and  gardens  for  their  own  pleasure. 

The  Hova  children  are  brown-skinned,  some  very  light  olive 
in  colour,  and  some  very  dark.  As  a  rule,  they  have  little 
clothing,  and  no  caps,  shoes,  or  stockings,  and  are  usually  very 
dirty  and  uncared  for.  On  Sundays  and  on  special  occasions 
the  girls  are  often  dressed  in  print  frocks,  and  the  boys  in 
jackets  of  similar  material,  and  with  clean  white  calico  Ictmba 
over  all ;  but  on  week-days  a  small  Idmba,  of  soiled  and  coarse 
hemp  cloth,  often  forms  almost  their  only  clothing.  Of  course 
the  children  of  well-to-do  people  are  sometimes  very  nicely 
dressed,  although  they  too  often  go  about  in  a  rather  dirty 
fashion.  I  am  here,  however,  speaking  of  the  majority  of  the 
children  one  sees,  those  of  the  poorer  people  of  the  village. 
One  day  some  of  us  went  for  a  ride  to  a  village  about  two  miles 
away  from  Ambohimanga.  A  number  of  children  followed  us 
about  as  we  collected  ferns  in  the  hddy,  and  as  a  group  of  seven 
or  eight  of  them  sat  near  us,  we  calculated  that  the  value  of  all 
they  had  on  would  not  amount  to  one  shilling  ! 

Poor  children  !  they  have  few  amusements.  They  some- 
times play  at  a  game  which  is  very  like  our  "  fox  and  geese  "  ; 
the  boys  spin  peg-tops  ;  the  little  children  make  figures  of  oxen 
and  birds,  &c.,  out  of  clay ;  and  the  big  boys  have  a  rough  and 
violent  game  called  mamely  diamdnga^  in  which  they  kick  back- 
ward at  each  other,  with  their  feet  lifted  almost  as  high  as  their 
heads.  Perhaps  the  most  favourite  amusement  of  Malagasy 
children  is  to  sit  in  parties  out  of  doors  on  fine  moonlight  nights, 
and  sing  away  for  hours  some  of  the  monotonous  native  chants, 
accompanying  them  with  regular  clapping  of  hands. 

One  thing  more  may  be  noticed  about  our  Malagasy  village, 

^  JJrera  sp.  and  Obctia  sp. 


IMERINA,  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCE.  33 

and  that  is,  that  in  almost  all  the  larger  villages  of  Imcrina 
there  is  now  to  be  seen  a  building  for  Christian  worship.  In 
many  places  this  is  a  rough  and  plain  structure,  made  of  clay  or 
of  sun-dried  brick,  often  with  no  glass  in  the  windows,  and  no 
pews  or  benches  on  the  floor.  Still,  in  these  rude  country 
churches,  God's  Word  is  read  and  preached,  the  love  of  Christ 
is  made  known,  and  some  light  is  being  shed  upon  the  minds  of 
the  people,  who  are  most  of  them  still  very  ignorant  and  super- 
stitious. In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  capital,  however,  as  well 
as  in  some  other  districts,  many  very  neat  and  pretty  village 
churches  are  now  to  be  seen.  These  are  plastered  and  coloured, 
and  often  have  tiled  roofs  and  glass  windows  ;  there  are  low 
benches  and  clean  mats  on  the  floor,  and  some  few  have  well- 
carved  stone  and  wood  pulpits,  showing  that  the  people  have 
worked  hard  and  done  their  best  to  make  a  building  that  shall 
be  suitable  for  the  worship  of  God. 

Besides  being  used  for  Divine  service  on  Sundays,  the  village 
church  is  also  the  school-house  on  week-days.  Here  may  be 
seen  bright  children  repeating  their  a,  b,  d  (not  c)^  reading  and 
writing,  doing  sums,  learning  a  little  grammar  and  geography, 
and  being  taught  their  catechism  and  something  about  the  chief 
facts  and  truths  of  the  Bible.  And  perhaps  there  is  no  more 
pleasant  sight  to  be  seen  in  Madagascar  than  one  of  the  larger 
chapels  filled  to  the  doors  on  the  annual  examination  day  with 
children  from  the  neighbouring  villages,  all  dressed  in  their  best 
eager  to  show  their  knowledge,  and  pleased  to  get  the  Testa- 
ment or  hymn-book  or  other  prize  given  to  those  who  have 
answered  well. 

Thank  God  there  are  now  hundreds  of  such  village  churches 
and  schools  in  Central  Madagascar.  May  they  soon  be  seen  all 
over  the  provinces  of  the  great  island  ! 


4 


CHAPTER  III. 


ANTANANARIVO,  THE  CAPITAL  :  ITS  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS, 
MEMORIAL  AND  OTHER  CHURCHES,  AND  RELIGIOUS 
AND  CHARITABLE  INSTITUTIONS. 


Scenery  around  the  capital — Its  picturesque  situation — Rugged  streets  and  paths 
— Houses  and  other  buildings — Recent  introduction  of  bricks — Ro^^al  palaces 
— Faravohitra  —  Ancient  gateway  —  Sacred  stones  —  Absence  of  wheeled 
vehicles  and  of  gas  and  water  supply — Street  scenes — Weekly  market  of 
Zoma — Amusements — L.M.S.  churches  and  religious  institutions — Ambatona- 
kanga  Church — Other  memorial  churches — "  Mother  churches  "  and  districts 
— Chapel  Royal — Sunday  observance — Colleges  and  school  buildings — Dis- 
pensaries and  hospitals — Other  missions — Extent  of  Christian  work  carried 
on — Civilising  work  of  L.M.S.  Mission — ^Population — Plans  of  the  capital — 
Antananarivo,  the  heart  of  Madagascar. 


HE  chief  city  of  Madagascar  is  situated  nearly  in  the 


X  centre  of  the  island,  as  regards  its  length  from  north  to 
south,  but  is  much  nearer  the  eastern  than  the  western  side  of 
the  country.  It  is  about  one  hundred  miles  from  the  Indian 
Ocean  to  the  east,  while  the  Mozambique  Channel  is  nearly 
twice  that  distance  from  it  to  the  west.^ 

Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  just  come  up  from  Tamatave, 
and,  by  the  route  described  in  the  first  chapter,  have  passed 
through  the  two  belts  of  forest,  and  are  now  on  the  open,  breezy 
moorland  of  eastern  Imerina.  Antananarivo  is  still  about  thirty 
miles  distant,  a  good  day's  journey  from  the  upper  line  of  forest. 
We  see  signs  of  a  denser  population  as  we  advance :  well- 

^  By  the  latest  and  most  reliable  observations,  the  following  has  been  settled  as 
the  position  of  Antananarivo  :  Lat.,  i8°  55'  2'io"-2-i8"  S.  ;  long.,  47°  31'  22"  E. 

34 


ANTANANARIVO,  THE  CAPITAL.  35 

cultivated  rice-fields  in  every  valley,  plantations  on  the  hillsides, 
numerous  villages,  and  scattered  homesteads,  the  houses  being 
built  of  the  hard  red  clay  or  decomposed  granite,  while  the  walls 
enclosing  the  compounds  are  also  of  this  material.  We  pass  the 
long  mountain  of  Angavokely,  with  its  double  summit,  one  peak 
having  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  a  mediaeval  castle  ;  and  then 
the  rounded,  dome-like  mass  of  Ambatovory,  with  its  woods — a 
remnant  of  the  primeval  forest — nestling  in  the  valley  at  its 
base  ;  and  then  a  long,  gradual  ascent  brings  us  to  a  high  moor, 
from  which  a  very  extensive  prospect  is  unfolded  ;  the  greater 
part  of  Imerina  lies  before  us,  and  most  of  its  prominent  hills 
and  its  chief  towns  can  be  clearly  seen.  Before  us,  at  nine  or 
ten  miles'  distance,  is  a  long  and  lofty  ridge,  stretching  north 
and  south,  on  which  buildings  can  be  plainly  discerned,  cutting 
the  sky-line ;  in  the  centre  are  the  lofty  white  roofs  of  the  group 
of  royal  palaces  ;  to  the  north  are  the  towers  of  the  Prime 
Minister's  house,  its  glass  dome  shining  in  the  sunlight  ;  while 
the  spires  and  towers  of  churches  can  also  be  distinguished, 
especially  at  each  extremity  of  the  long  line  of  hill.  From  this 
lofty  point  we  descend  into  deep  river  valleys,  and  ascend  again 
several  times  before  the  two  hours'  ride  still  to  be  accomplished 
is  completed  ;  we  lose  sight  of  the  city  again  and  again, 
until  another  long  ascent  brings  us  up  to  the  last  hill  before 
we  descend  into  the  valley  which  surrounds  Antananarivo  ; 
and  at  last  the  capital  of  the  island  stands  before  us,  at 
a  distance  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile  or  so  across  the  rice- 
fields. 

It  is  certainly  a  very  picturesquely  situated  town  ;  the  rocky 
ridge,  on  the  summit  and  slopes  of  which  the  houses  are  built, 
rises  at  its  highest  point,  near  the  centre,  to  from  500  to  600  feet 
above  the  surrounding  valleys  and  the  western  plain,  and  its 
length,  north  and  south,  is  not  far  short  of  two  miles.  At  the 
southern  extremity  it  slopes  down  abruptly  to  the  valley,  but  at 
the  northern  end  the  descent  is  more  gradual.  At  about  two- 
thirds  of  its  length  from  the  south,  a  large  branch  or  spur  of  the 


36  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

hill  separates  from  the  main  ridge  and  curves  round  to  the 
north-west  with  a  tolerably  easy  gradient ;  so  that  the  actual 
extent  of  the  city  is  not  realised  from  the  eastern  side,  and  one 
must  ride  round  to  the  west  to  see  how  large  a  place  it  really 
is.  The  ridge,  though  long,  is  narrow,  so  that  there  is  little 
level  ground  on  the  summit ;  and  the  majority  of  the  houses  are 
built  on  terraces,  cut  away  on  one  side  and  built  up  with  retain- 
ing walls  on  the  other.  At  the  junction  of  the  two  northern 
branches  of  the  hill  there  is  a  large  triangular  open  space  called 
Andohalo,  where  a  market  is  held,  and  where  great  public 
assemblies  are  convened,  as  at  the  promulgation  of  any  new 
law,  or  the  reception  of  the  sovereign  on  her  return  to  the 
capital,  &c. 

East  and  west,  the  sides  of  the  hill  are  very  steep  ;  indeed,  on 
the  western  side  they  are  precipitous.  On  this  side  is  the  pre- 
cipice of  Ampamarinana  ("  the  place  of  hurling  "),  the  Tarpeian 
of  Antananarivo,  where  those  accused  of  sorcery  were  formerly 
killed  by  being  hurled  from  the  summit  ;  and  where  also,  in 
1849,  many  Malagasy  Christians  suffered  death,  being  supposed 
to  have  been  enabled,  by  some  powerful  charm,  to  be  dis- 
obedient to  their  heathen  sovereign's  will. 

Antananarivo,  or  "  City  of  a  thousand,"  that  is,  probably,  a 
thousand  settlers  or  military  colonists,  is  certainly  "  a  city  set 
on  a  hill  which  cannot  be  hid."  As  already  remarked,  it  is  by 
far  the  largest  town  in  Madagascar,  only  two  or  three  places 
reaching  a  tenth  of  its  extent  or  population.  Its  ancient  name 
was  lalamanga,  i.e.,  "  At  the  blue  (or  famous)  wood,"  probably 
from  the  forest  formerly  covering  its  summit  and  slopes,  as  is 
still  the  case  with  Ambohimanga,  the  ancient  capital.  Antanana- 
rivo has  attained  its  present  important  position  in  the  island 
only  within  the  last  hundred  years,  greatly  increasing  in  size 
and  population  since  it  became  no  longer  merely  the  chief  town 
of  one  Malagasy  tribe — the  Hova — but  also  the  capital  of  the 
country  through  the  Hova  making  themselves  the  dominant 
tribe  of  Madagascar. 


ANTANANARIVO,  THE  CAPITAL.  37 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  road-making  is  very  difficult  in  a 
place  like  Antananarivo.  The  naked  rock  comes  to  the  surface 
almost  everywhere ;  and  the  gradients,  east  and  west  at  least, 
would  be  almost  impossible  for  a  carriage,  even  could  the  path 
be  paved  smooth.  There  are,  in  fact,  only  about  two  main 
roads  in  the  city,  one  going  north  and  south,  and  the  other  east 
and  west.  These  are  roughly  paved  in  some  parts  ;  but  it 
requires  care  even  to  ride  on  horseback  along  Antananarivo 
streets.  The  houses  are  not  built  adjoining  each  other,  as  in 
European  towns ;  each  one  stands  in  its  own  compound  ;  al- 
though certainly  in  the  centre  of  the  city  they  are  packed  pretty 
closely  together,  and  often  the  only  path  to  large  and  respectable 
houses  is  by  climbing  low  walls  and  struggling  up  and  down 
narrow  and  steep  rocky  stairs. 

Notwithstanding  these  drawbacks,  Antananarivo  now  pos- 
sesses a  large  number  of  substantial  and  often  handsome  houses, 
as  well  as  many  public  buildings  which  would  not  disgrace  a 
European  town.  A  great  change  has  come  about  since  I  first 
knew  the  place  in  1863.  Then  it  was  a  town  built  entirely, 
within  the  city  proper,  of  wood  or  rush  and  bamboo.  By  an 
old  law,  or  rather  custom,  no  building  of  stone  or  clay  was 
allowed  to  be  erected  within  these  limits ;  and  there  was  a 
similar  custom  in  many  of  the  other  ancient  towns.  The  houses 
of  the  nobles  and  the  wealthier  people  were  all  of  massive 
timber  framing,  fitted  in  with  thick  upright  planking,  and  the 
roof  of  extremely  high  pitch,  with  long  crossed  gable-timbers  or 
"  horns."  These  houses  were  sometimes  roofed  with  wooden 
shingles,  but  more  frequently  with  thatch  of  a  species  of  sedge. 
It  will  be  easily  seen  that  with  such  combustible  materials  fires 
were  of  frequent  occurrence,  especially  at  the  end  of  the  dry 
season  ;  and  twenty,  thirty,  or  even  a  hundred  houses  were  not 
unfrequently  burnt  down  at  one  time.  The  acceptance  of 
Christianity  by  the  Queen  and  Government  in  1868  put  an  end 
to  this  foolish  custom,  as  well  as  to  many  other  still  more  harm- 
ful things  ;  and  the  old  timber  houses  have  now  almost  dis- 


38  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

appeared  from  the  city.  An  interesting  relic  of  the  past  is  still 
preserved  with  religious  care  in  the  palace  yard  among  more 
modern  buildings.  This  is  the  ancient  royal  house  called 
Besakana,  where  the  corpse  of  a  deceased  sovereign  lies  in  state, 
the  building  being  draped  entirely  in  scarlet  cloth. 

The  introduction  of  sun-dried  brick  and  tiles  by  Mr.  James 
Cameron  and  Mr.  W.  Pool,  of  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
as  well  as  the  erection  of  the  stone  Martyr  Memorial  Churches, 
of  which  I  was  the  architect,  has  completely  revolutionised  the 
building  art  in  Imerina  and  in  Betsileo.  And  Antananarivo, 
instead  of  being  a  town  of  wooden  and  rush  houses,  as  I  knew 
it  thirty-two  years  ago,  has  become  a  city  containing  hundreds 
of  good  two-  and  three-storied  brick  houses,  with  many  public 
buildings  of  stone.  Within  the  last  ten  or  twelve  years  burnt 
brick  has  come  into  much  more  general  use ;  and  many  sub- 
stantial houses  and  some  churches  are  now  to  be  seen  erected  of 
this  more  durable  material.  Scores  of  houses  have  their  verandah 
pillars  of  moulded  brick,  or  of  stone  with  carved  capitals.  There 
are,  it  must  be  confessed,  some  drawbacks  to  the  otherwise 
pleasant  picture.  There  are  too  many  houses  unfinished,  and  a 
general  aspect  of  disrepair  visible,  and  a  want  of  neatness  and 
tidiness. 

Among  the  most  prominent  buildings  of  the  capital  are  the 
group  of  royal  palaces,  the  largest  of  which,  an  immense  three- 
storied  timber  structure,  has  been  surrounded  with  triple  stone 
verandah  and  arches,  and  strengthened  with  corner  towers. 
This  largest  of  the  royal  buildings  is  known  by  the  name  of 
Manjdkainiddana,  "  Reigning  peacefully";  it  is  about  120 
feet  in  height  to  the  ridge  of  the  high-pitched  roof,  which  is 
surmounted  at  each  end  by  tall  lightning-conductors,  and  in  the 
centre  by  an  enormous  gilt  copper  figure  of  an  eagle — a  bird 
which  is  used  as  a  kind  of  national  emblem,  much  as  is  the  case 
with  the  eagles  of  America  and  several  European  states.  Close 
to  this  largest  palace  stands  the  Trdnovola  or  "  Silver  house," 
about  two-thirds  the  size  of  its  larger  neighbour,  but  entirely  of 


ANTANANARIVO,  THE  CAriTAL.  39 

timber.  There  are  several  other  palaces,  each  having  its  proper 
name,  as  Manampisoa  ("Adding  good"),  Bcsdkana  ("Great 
breadth"),  &c.  This  last-named  building  is  the  most  ancient  and 
venerated  of  all ;  it  is  a  simple  oblong  structure  of  framed 
timber,  with  upright  planking,  and  a  roof  of  enormously  high 
pitch,  covered  with  wooden  shingles,  and  crossed  "horns,"  10 
or  12  feet  long,  at  each  gable.^ 

In  the  palace  courtyard  the  spire  and  tower  of  the  Chapel 
Royal  is  a  conspicuous  feature.  The  building  is  constructed  of 
stone  and  roofed  with  slates  from  the  Betsileo  province.  It 
boasts  of  a  pipe  organ,  tinted  glass  windows,  and  a  good  deal 
of  elaborate  carving  both  in  wood  and  stone.  Further  south  is 
the  great  square  stone  and  brick  house  of  the  Prime  Minister, 
and  other  handsome  residences  of  nobles  and  high  officers,  and 
the  High  Court  of  Justice,  with  its  Ionic  columns.  Very 
prominent  in  Antananarivo  also  are  buildings  for  religious  and 
educational  purposes  ;  the  four  Memorial  Churches  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  each  with  spire  or  tower,  together 
with  about  a  score  more  (belonging  to  the  same  mission),  less 
ornate  in  style,  in  the  city  and  its  suburbs ;  the  Anglican 
Cathedral,  although  still  wanting  its  spires  ;  the  Roman  Catholic 
Cathedral,  with  its  elegant  lantern-crowned  towers  ;  the  Nor- 
wegian Lutheran  Church  ;  the  College  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society  and  the  High  Schools  of  the  same  society,  as  well  as 
those  of  the  Friends,  the  Anglican,  and  the  Jesuit  missions  ; 
the  ^Mission  presses  ;  the  London  Missionary  Society's  and 
Norwegian  Hospitals  and  Dispensaries  ;  while  about  two  miles 
to  the  east  is  a  French  Observatory,  superintended  by  a  Jesuit 
priest.  • 

As  one's  eye  passes  along  the  long  wavy  ridge  of  the  city  hill, 
from  south  to  north,  it  is  seen  to  slope  gradually  to  the  plain  at 
the  northern  extremity.  This  portion  of  the  capital  is  called 
Faravohitra,  i.e.^  "  Last  village,"  its  former  extremity  northward, 

*  It  is  the  custom  for  Malagasy  sovereigns  to  build  a  new  house  for  themselves 
soon  after  their  accession. 


40  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

although  the  city  has  now  extended  far  beyond  this  spot. 
Thirty  years  ago  this  part  of  the  ridge  was  a  desolate-looking 
place,  with  hardly  a  house  upon  it ;  a  number  of  ancient  tombs 
stretched  along  the  rough  footpath  ;  it  was  one  of  the  places  of 
execution,  and  no  one  would  walk  along  it  after  nightfall.  Now, 
however,  and  for  many  years  past,  it  is  a  favourite  part  of  the 
city,  the  majority  of  the  English  mission  families  residing  there  ; 
while  amongst  them  is  seen  the  square  tower  of  the  Faravohitra 
Memorial  Church,  and  many  of  the  educational  establishments 
of  the  L.M.S.  and  Friends'  Missions. 

The  most  ancient  structure  in  Antananarivo  is  the  old  gate- 
way to  the  east  of  the  city,  the  only  one  now  remaining  of 
several  gates  formerly  guarding  the  chief  approaches  to  the 
capital.  This  interesting  relic  of  the  olden  time  is  a  mass  of 
rude  masonry  of  thin,  flat  stones  laid  without  mortar,  with  large 
upright  slabs  of  blue  gneiss  at  the  angles.  The  opening  is  a 
square  doorway  several  feet  deep,  and  in  time  of  war  was  closed 
by  a  huge  flat  circular  stone  which  was  rolled  out  of  a  groove 
inside  the  gateway.  The  name  of  this  ancient  gate  is  Ankadi- 
bevava,  i.e.,  "  At  the  Fosse  with  the  great  Mouth,"  or  opening  ; 
but  it  is  also  as  often  called  Ambavahadimitafo,  i.e.,  "  At  the 
Roofed  Gateway,"  because  it  is  covered  with  a  rush  roof 

The  "  sacred  stones  "  of  Antananarivo  are  objects  which  are 
onnected  with  royalty  among  the  Hova  and  mark  it — amongst 
many  other  things — as  a  different  place  from  European  cities. 
One  of  these  is  situated  in  Andohalo,  a  spacious  triangular  open 
space  in  the  centre  of  the  capital,  where  a  large  daily  market  is 
held,  where  public  assemblies  take  place,  and  where  some  of  the 
sovereigns  have  been  crowned.  The  sacred  stone  here  is  nothing 
but  the  underlying  gneiss  rock,  which  in  one  spot  comes  to  the 
surface ;  but  upon  it  the  sovereign  must  always  stand  on  special 
occasions,  as  when  returning  from  a  visit  to  Ambohimanga  or 
more  distant  places,  and  is  there  saluted  by  the  army  and  by 
the  people  generally.  The  other  sacred  stone  is  a  much  more 
prominent  object,  and  appears  to  be  a  boulder-like  mass  of 


ANTANANARIVO,  THE  CAPITAL.  4 1 

gneiss  which  has  at  some  remote  time  tumbled  down  from  the 
precipitous  western  side  of  the  city  hill,  and  stands  nearly  in  the 
centre  of  a  large  square  plain  on  that  side  of  Antananarivo. 
This  open  space  is  called  Imahamasina,  ix.,  "  Place  of  making 
sacred  "  (or  establishing  or  confirming).  Some  Hova  sovereigns 
have  been  crowned  here  (or  rather,  first  appeared  in  state  for  the 
homage  of  their  subjects),  and  the  throne  is  always  placed  on 
the  sacred  stone.  One  is  here  reminded  of  the  sacred  stones  on 
which  the  kings  of  other  nations  have  been  enthroned  in  ancient 
times,  and  especially  of  our  own  "  Stone  of  Destiny  "  from  Scone 
now  and  for  so  many  centuries  past  placed  under  the  chair  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

From  whatever  side  one  goes  up  into  Antananarivo,  the 
ascent  is  steep,  in  most  places  exceedingly  so,  and  most  rugged 
and  uneven.  It  is  immediately  evident  that  no  carriage  could 
traverse  these  roughly  paved  roads  ;  such  things  are  in  fact 
unknown  in  this  large  city,  and  so  the  streets  are  singularly 
quiet,  with  no  rush  of  wheels  or  tramp  of  horses,  while  the  great 
majority  of  human  feet  are  shoeless  and  so  almost  noiseless  in 
their  tread.  There  are  only  two  or  three  streets,  in  our  sense  of 
the  term,  in  this  capital  of  Madagascar,  that  is  where  a  tolerably 
good  pavement  has  been  laid  down  with  side  gutters,  &c.  The 
greater  part  of  the  houses  are  reached  by  narrow  paths  winding 
in  and  out  among  the  compounds,  and  sometimes  there  is  no 
access  to  a  house  but  by  crossing  the  yards  of  others,  and  often 
only  by  climbing  over  the  low  clay  walls  which  surround  them. 
A^  we  pass  along  we  see  how  difficult  and  costly  it  would  be  to 
make  roads  and  streets  in  Antananarivo,  for  each  compound  is 
a  terrace  cut  out  of  the  steep  hillside,  built  up  on  one  side  by 
the  soil  and  rock  removed  from  the  other.  Of  course  drainage 
is  all  surface,  and  in  the  heavy  rains  of  the  wet  season 
each  street  and  path  is  swept  by  a  furious  torrent,  often 
forming  a  series  of  rapids  and  waterfalls,  and  constantly 
cutting  deep  trenches  in  the  red  soil,  so  that  every  path  not 
protected  by  some  kind  of  rough  paving  is  being  constantly 


42  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

lowered,  some  streets  being  many  feet  below  the  compounds 
on  either  hand. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  there  are  no  water-pipes  or  gas 
mains  in  the  streets  of  Antananarivo.  The  want  of  the  former 
is  supplied  by  the  primitive  plan  of  all  water  being  fetched  from 
springs  at  the  foot  of  the  city  hill  by  the  women  and  girls — 
slave  or  free — of  every  household.  Long  lines  of  these  may  be 
seen  in  the  evenings  going  up  and  down  the  rough  paths  with 
their  water-pots  on  their  heads.  At  nights  the  streets  are  dark 
and  almost  deserted,  but  for  the  lantern  carried  by  an  occasional 
passenger.  Few  Europeans  or  respectable  natives  care  to  risk 
their  limbs  by  going  without  a  light  over  these  breakneck 
paths. 

A  prominent  feature  in  the  life  of  Antananarivo  is  the  great 
weekly  market  held  every  Friday  on  a  place  in  the  north-west 
side  of  the  city.  This  is  called  Zoma  (Friday),  from  the  day  on 
which  it  is  held,  and  although  a  large  daily  market  is  also  held 
there,  on  Fridays  an  immense  concourse  of  people  from  the 
surrounding  country,  as  well  as  from  the  city  itself,  is  gathered 
together.  All  the  chief  roads  are  thronged  with  people  bringing 
in  their  goods  for  sale,  and  by  an  early  hour  in  the  forenoon 
probably  10,000  or  12,000  persons  are  assembled,  and  the  hum 
of  voices  can  be  heard  from  a  considerable  distance.  Here 
everything  that  is  grown  or  manufactured  in  the  interior 
province  can  be  procured,  and  in  no  place  can  a  better  idea  of 
the  productions  of  the  country  or  of  the  handicraft  skill  of  the 
Malagasy  be  obtained  than  in  this  great  Zoma  market.  There 
is,  of  course,  a  rough  division  of  the  various  objects  for  sale  in 
different  sections  of  the  market-ground.  Here  is  a  forest  of 
timber,  rafters,  joists,  and  boards ;  here  are  doors,  bedsteads, 
and  chairs  ;  here  are  enormous  piles  of  herana  rush  for  roofing 
and  long  dry  grass  for  fuel ;  here  is  the  grain,  fruit,  and  vegetable 
division  of  the  market,  with  heaps  of  salt  and  chillies  for  condi- 
ments ;  here  is  the  cattle  market,  and  not  far  off  the  beef  and 
mutton,  and  the  poultry  section,  with  hundreds  of  fowls,  ducks, 


ANTANANARIVO,  THE  CAPITAL. 


43 


turkeys,  and  geese  ;  here  is  the  "  dry  goods "  division,  with 
English  calicoes,  American  sheeting,  gay  prints,  and  native 
cloths  of  hemp,  cotton,  and  rojia  fibre  ;  here  are  piles  of  snowy 
cocoons  of  raw  silk  for  weaving  into  fine  lamba  ;  here  is  iron- 
work of  all  kinds,  nails  and  hinges,  bolts  and  screws  ;  and  here 
is  native  pottery,  water-jars,  and  cooking-pots,  and  so  on.  The 
Zoma  market  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  interesting  sights  of 
Antananarivo,  and  is  without  doubt  one  of  the  chief  delights  of 
life  to  the  native  residents  in  the  capital. 

To  Europeans  there  is  a  great  absence  in  Antananarivo  of 
anything  like  entertainments  or  amusements.  A  French  gentle- 
man, newly  arrived  in  the  city,  truly  observed  :  "  //  n'y  a  pas  des 
distractions  ici!  "  And  doubtless  he  felt  the  want  of  the  cafe  and 
theatre  and  boulevarde  of  his  beloved  Paris.  Probably  the 
Malagasy  themselves  do  not  feel  this  need,  and  are  sufficiently 
amused  and  entertained  by  the  mild  excitement  of  their  New 
Year's  festival,  by  an  occasional  kabary  or  public  assembly,  by 
the  return  of  the  queen  from  a  visit  to  some  other  part  of  the 
country,  with  the  state  and  ceremony  attending  it,  by  a  review 
of  troops,  and  perhaps  still  more  by  the  frequent  markets  and 
their  gossip,  together  with  the  delights  of  bargaining  and  seeing 
others  buy  and  sell.  Of  late  years  these  purely  native  amuse- 
ments have  been  added  to  by  the  introduction  of  occasional 
lectures,  concerts,  and  other  entertainments,  chiefly  held  in  the 
educational  buildings  or  the  different  missions  ;  the  school 
children  also  often  have  their  "treats,"  when  they  sport  their 
gayest  dresses  and  are  feasted  in  some  garden  or  mango 
orchard  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city ;  and  it  may  be  added  that 
the  Lohavblana,  or  service  held  at  one  of  the  larger  Antanana- 
rivo churches  in  rotation  on  the  first  Monday  morning  of  every 
month,  is  also  a  time  of  great  enjoyment  to  the  younger  people 
from  the  new  sacred  music  introduced  on  many  of  these  occa- 
sions. 

On  referring  to  the  map  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  in 
Antananarivo  and  its  suburbs,  no  fewer  than  thirty-five  churches, 


44 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


twenty-seven  of  which  are  connected  with  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society.  And  when  the  population  ^  of  the  capital  is 
remembered — probably  from  80,000  to  100,000 — it  will  be 
evident  that  these  thirty-five  churches  provide  by  no  means 
too  large  an  accommodation  for  those  who  should  attend  public 
worship,  indeed  it  is  still  greatly  inadequate  to  the  needs  of  the 
city. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  little  attempt  has  been  made  in  the 
map  to  show  the  remarkably  irregular  and  very  picturesque  site 
of  Antananarivo,  as  this  would  have  interfered  with  its  main 
purpose.  This  has  been  already  sufficiently  described  in  the 
earlier  portion  of  the  chapter. 

The  first  building  erected  for  Christian  worship  in  Antanana- 
rivo was  at  Ambodin'  Andohalo,  on  the  spot  where  the  London 
Missionary  Society  Girls'  Central  School  stood  until  very  lately 
(see  map).  For  some  time  the  school-house  adjoining  Mr. 
Griffiths'  residence  on  this  site  appears  to  have  been  used  for 
worship,  and  this  continued  for  several  years  to  be  the  sole  place 
of  meeting.  In  1831,  however,  as  the  number  of  worshippers 
increased,  a  second  building  was  erected  at  Ambatonakanga  (i)  ^  ; 
and,  as  the  first  site  at  Andohalo  was  not,  in  this  later  period  of 
the  Mission,  used  again  for  worship,  the  congregation  meeting 
in  the  Memorial  Church  there  may  be  justly  regarded  as  the 
"  mother  church  "  of  Madagascar.  Ambatonakanga  is  certainly 
the  most  interesting  spot  in  the  island  as  regards  its  religious 
history.  It  is  a  commanding  position  at  the  junction  of  the  two 
chief  roads  in  the  city — it  might  almost  be  said  in  the  island — 
and  the  site  was  originally  granted  for  a  workshop  to  the  L.M.S. 
On  this  spot  the  first  printing-press  was  erected  and  set  to  work ; 
subsequently  the  second  place  in  the  country  ever  erected  for 
Christian  worship  was  built  here ;  on  the  outbreak  of  persecution 
this  building  was  turned  into  a  stable  and  afterwards  into  a 

^  The  population  of  Antananarivo  has  recently  been  ascertained — March,  1896 
— not  to  exceed  43,000  souls. — Ed. 

=  The  numbers  following  the  names  of  churches  are  those  by  which  they  are 
marked  on  the  map  and  in  the  list  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 


ANTANANARIVO,  THE  CAPITAL. 


45 


prison  for  the  punishment  of  the  "  praying  people  "  ;  and  finally, 
the  first  of  the  four  Martyr  Memorial  Churches  was  commenced 
herein  1864  and  opened  in  1867.  This  is  a  substantial  stone 
structure  with  tower  and  spire,  built  in  a  simple  Norman  style, 
the  first  stone  building  ever  erected  in  the  country. 

When  Mr.  Ellis  arrived  in  Antananarivo  in  June,  1862,  soon 
after  the  country  was  re-opened  to  Christian  effort,  he  found  three 
large  congregations  already  gathered  together,  and  all  meeting 
in  the  same  quarter  of  the  city,  the  north-west — one  at  Amba- 
tonakanga  ;  another  at  Analakely  (2)  ;  and  the  third  at  Ampa- 
ribe  (3).  These  congregations  met  in  very  rough  and  unattractive 
buildings — one  being  an  old  stable ;  another  several  native  houses 
patched  together ;  and  the  other  an  old  workshop.  For  many 
years  past,  however,  these  congregations  have  been  housed  in 
large  buildings  ;  and  these  three  still  continue  in  the  front 
rank  as  regards  numbers  and  influence,  Amparibe  probably 
containing  the  largest  congregation  to  be  seen  in  any  part  of 
the  island.  During  the  twelve  years  or  so  following  the  year 
1862  numerous  offshoots  sprang  from  the  three  just  named, 
until  the  city  churches  reached  the  number  shown  on  the  map. 
Ten  of  these  are  reni-fia7tgonana  ("  mother  churches  "),  having 
large  districts  connected  with  each,  which  stretch  for  many  miles 
in  all  directions,  and  contain  in  all  no  fewer  than  six  hinid^'ed 
congregatio7is.  The  largest  of  these  districts  includes  120 
churches  and  is  worked  most  efficiently  by  the  Friends'  Mission, 
in  complete  harmony  with  the  London  Missionary  Society,  and 
has  its  mother  church  at  Amb6hitantely  (8). 
I  Of  these  ten,  four  are  the  Memorial  Churches  at  Ambatona- 
kanga  (i),  Ambohipotsy  (2),  Ampamarinana  (6),  and  Faravo- 
I  hitra  (9).  The  first  of  these  has  already  been  described.  The 
I  second  occupies  a  most  commanding  position  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  city  ridge,  and  is  visible  for  many  miles  in 
every  direction.  It  is  built  in  a  simple  Early  English  style  of 
Gothic,  and  has  a  tower  and  spire.  Ambohipotsy  is  the  St. 
Albans  of  Madagascar,  for  it  is  the  spot  where  the  heroic 


46  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Rasalama,  the  first  Christian  martyr,  was  speared  in  the  year 
1837.  The  third  church  is  built  on  the  edge  of  the  "precipice  of 
hurling,"  as  its  name  signifies,  and  commemorates  thirteen  brave 
confessors  who  were,  in  1849,  dashed  down  the  steep  cliffs  for 
refusing  to  deny  their  Saviour.  The  building  is  designed  in 
a  simple  Romanesque  style,  and  has  a  lofty  campanile  ;  the 
interior,  with  its  galleries  all  round,  looking  very  much  like  an 
English  Nonconformist  chapel  The  fourth  of  these  Martyr 
Memorial  buildings  occupies  a  very  prominent  position  at  the 
northern  end  of  the  city  ridge.  Faravohitra  Church  is  a  very 
plain  stone  structure,  with  low  square  tower,  and  marks  the 
exact  spot  where,  in  1849,  four  Christian  Malagasy  were  burnt 
to  death,  together  with  the  mangled  remains  of  those  thirteen 
who  had  been  hurled  over  the  precipices  at  Ampamarinana  on 
the  same  day. 

The  Queen's  Church  in  the  palace  courtyard  is  attended  by 
Her  Majesty  and  her  Court,  as  well  as  by  many  of  the  chief 
people  of  the  city.  The  congregation  here  gives  liberally  towards 
the  support  of  native  evangelists  and  teachers  in  the  different 
districts,  and  it  is  distinctly  a  Congregational  church.  The  other 
churches  in  the  city  and  suburbs  are  mostly  of  sun-dried  brick 
and  stone,  but  some  of  the  more  recently-erected  ones  are  of 
burnt  brick,  and  are  handsome  buildings.  On  Sunday  mornings 
they  are  all  well  filled,  especially  on  the  first  Sunday  in  the 
month,  the  congregations  numbering  in  several  instances  over 
a  thousand  people.  The  afternoon  congregations  are  not  quite 
so  large.  Some  of  the  surburban  churches  are  just  as  largely 
attended  as  those  in  the  city  proper. 

The  observance  of  Sunday  is  a  marked  feature  in  the  life 
of  Antananarivo.  No  markets  are  held,  all  Government  business 
is  stopped,  and  large  numbers  of  people  in  clean  white  dresses 
and  lamba  crowd  the  roads  going  to  and  from  the  various  places 
of  worship.  The  sound  of  bells  is  heard  from  many  towers,  and 
as  one  passes  by  the  churches,  the  familiar  strains  of  many  well- 
known  English  tunes  may  be  heard  sung  accompanied  by  the 


ANTANANARIVO,  THE  CAPITAL.  47 

notes  of  American  organs  or  harmoniums.  A  Sabbath  quiet 
and  calm  is  over  the  whole  city  ;  not  only  is  divine  worship 
attended  by  thousands,  but  hundreds  of  children  are  learning 
in  Sunday  schools  ;  and  it  may  be  said  that  in  Antananarivo, 
as  well  as  in  many  other  Madagascar  towns  and  villages,  the 
Day  of  Rest  is  as  well  observed  as  in  most  parts  of  England, 
or  even  of  Scotland. 

In  addition  to  the  churches  of  Antananarivo,  other  institu- 
tions connected  with  the  London  Missionary  Society  and  the 
Friends'  and  other  Missions  are  also  shown  on  the  map.  Of 
these,  the  largest  building,  and  one  seen  most  prominently  on 
approaching  the  capital  from  Tamatave,  is  the  L.M.S.  College, 
a  massive  and  substantial  structure  of  brick  and  stone.  The 
College  teaching  was  commenced  in  1869,  and  the  present 
building  was  opened  in  1881.  The  accommodation  includes, 
besides  spacious  class-rooms  and  tutors'  residences,  a  lecture  hall, 
arranged  in  theatre  fashion,  where  lectures  are  delivered  and 
meetings  of  all  kinds  are  constantly  held,  there  being  room 
for  about  five  hundred  auditors.  About  seventy  to  eighty 
students  of  different  grades  are  usually  under  training,  the 
majority  of  these  being  educated  for  the  Christian  ministry, 
while  some  are  secular  students. 

A  little  below  the  College,  to  the  north,  is  the  L.M.S.  Normal 
School,  also  housed  in  a  substantial  stone  and  brick  buildinsf : 
and  here  teachers  for  the  town  and  country  schools  receive  a 
thorough  course  of  instruction  for  their  work.  The  Girls'  Central 
School  is  in  Ambodin'  Andohalo,  nearer  the  centre  of  the  city. 
Not  far  from  this  is  the  L.M.S.  Press,  from  which  a  large 
number  of  books  and  other  publications  are  constantly  being 
issued.^ 

Lower  down,  to  the  north-west,  at  Analakely  is  the  Dispen- 
sary, under  the  management  of  a  joint  committee  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society  and  Friends'  Missions.    Within  the  last  four 
or  five  years  a  new,  larger,  and  very  complete  Hospital  has  been 
^  About  150,000  books  of  various  kinds  yearly. 


48  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

erected  at  Isoavinandriana,  a  place  about  a  mile  from  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  capital.  This  is  also  under  the  joint 
control  of  the  two  societies,  although  the  Friends  take  the  larger 
share  of  the  expense^  of  all  medical  work.  Here  the  sick  are 
nursed  and  attended  to  ;  and  young  men  are  trained  as  doctors 
and  surgeons,  and  women  for  the  work  of  nursing  and  mid- 
wifery. A  Medical  Mission  Board  gives  diplomas  of  efficiency 
in  surgery  and  medicine,  and  a  considerable  number  of  young 
Malagasy  are  now  qualified  medical  practitioners. 

The  Friends'  Mission  Central  Girls'  School  and  their  press 
are  on  the  Faravohitra  hill  close  to  the  College ;  and  their 
excellent  upper  Boys'  School  is  at  Ambohijatovo,  nearer  the 
centre  of  the  city.  So  close  is  the  connection  between  the  two 
Missions,  that  for  all  practical  purposes  they  may  be  regarded 
as  one  ;  all  plans  of  work,  church  government,  and  worship 
being  the  same  in  almost  every  respect  in  the  churches  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society  and  those  in  charge  of  the  Friends. 

A  word  or  two  must  also  be  said  about  the  other  churches 
of  Antananarivo. 

Those  of  the  "Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel" 
Episcopal  Mission  are  four  in  number,  the  chief  being  the  stately 
stone  Cathedral,  which  occupies  a  most  commanding  position 
on  the  north  side  of  Andohalo  in  the  centre  of  the  city.  This 
is  a  cruciform  structure  with  three  towers,  which  will  eventually 
be  crowned  with  spires.  This  Mission  has  also  good  High 
Schools  for  boys  and  girls  in  the  city,  while  their  college,  with 
some  elegant  stone  buildings,  is  situated  about  twelve  miles  to 
the  north. 

The  Norwegian  Lutheran  Mission  has  a  representative  church 
in  Antananarivo,  as  well  as  a  training  institution,  orphanage, 
schools,  and  hospital.  Its  chief  work  is  south  of  Imerina  and 
in  the  Betsileo  province,  where  there  are  a  large  number  of 
stations. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Jesuit  Mission  has  four  churches  in  the 
capital.    Of  these,  the  largest  one,  or  cathedral,  close  to  Ando- 


ANTANANARivO,  THE  CAPITAL. 


49 


halo,  is  a  handsome  stone  structure  with  towers  crowned  by 
octagonal  lanterns.  There  are  also  large  buildings  as  residences 
for  priests,  lay  brothers,  and  sisters  of  mercy,  and  for  schools 
and  press.i 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  sketch  that  Antananarivo  is 

the  centre  of  a  large  amount  of  Christian  work  and  activity. 

Its  twenty-seven  L.M.S.  town  and   suburban  churches  and 

schools,  although  they  all  have  their  own  native  pastors  and 

preachers,  still,  however,  need  the  help  and  guidance  and  teaching 

of  English  missionaries ;  and  for  a  long  time  to  come  its  college, 

schools,  presses,  hospitals,  &c.,  will  require  the  same  oversight. 

And  when  it  is  remembered  that,  in  addition  to  the  above 

churches  and  their  large  districts,  there  are  also  five  out-stations 

of  the  L.M.S.  at  a  few  miles'  distance  from  the  capital,  with  about 

three  hundred  more  congregations,  it  is  evident  that  English 

missionaries  in  the  central  province  of  Madagascar  have  unusual 

opportunities  of  service  for  Christ.     The  greater  part  of  all 

these  nine   hundred   congregations   have   only  come  out  of 

heathenism  within  the  last  twenty-five  years,  and  numbers  of 

the  people  are  still  (can  we  wonder  at  it?)  very  ignorant  and 

superstitious.    The   claims   of  the   still   completely  heathen 

districts  of  Madagascar  are,  it  is  true,  very  urgent ;  but  while 

more  ought  to  be  done  for  these,  we  cannot  afford  at  present 

a  single  man  from  the  wide  field  close  to  our  hands  and  open 

to  our  teaching  with  hardly  any  external  hindrance.    It  may 

safely  be  said  that  in  no  other  part  of  the  world  are  there  such 

favourable  opportunities  of  service  for  our  Master.    In  almost 

every  other  mission-field  the  people  have  with  difficulty  to  be 

drawn  out  of  heathenism  to  hear  the  sound  of  the  Gospel ;  here 

they  are  already  gathered  into  hundreds  of  congregations,,  their 

idols  destroyed,  and  are  willing  to  listen  to  the  Word  of  Life. 

'  A  new  French  Protestant  Church  has  been  estabhshed  (1896),  under  the 
auspices  of  the  French  Resident-General,  M.  Hippolyte  Laroche,  at  Ambatona- 
kanga,  where  services  are  conducted  by  the  Pasteurs,  MM.  Logat  and  Kruger. 
—Ed. 

5 


50  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

In  concluding  this  description  of  Antananarivo  it  will  be 
evident  from  what  has  been  said  that  this  capital  of  the  Hova 
Malagasy  is  no  mere  collection  of  huts,  nor  is  it  like  a  Kaffir 
kraal,  but  is  gradually  becoming  a  respectable  city ;  and  it  is 
only  fair  to  add  that  the  advances  in  civilisation,  enlightenment, 
and  intelligence,  which  are  so  manifest  in  the  capital,  and 
also,  in  fair  proportion,  in  other  towns  throughout  the  central 
provinces,  are  the  direct  results  of  the  labour  of  Christian 
missionaries,  chiefly  those  of  the  London  Missionary  Society. 
This  society,  more  than  sixty  years  ago,  sent  to  Madagascar 
artisan  missionaries,  as  well  as  those  whose  work  was  more 
directly  educational  and  religious  ;  and  to  their  united  efforts 
the  Malagasy  chiefly  owe  the  material  progress  they  have 
already  made,  as  well  as  the  Christian  teaching  which  has 
broken  down  the  old  idolatry  of  the  people,  which  has  covered 
the  central  provinces  with  hundreds  of  churches,  which  is  teaching 
a  hundred  thousand  children  in  its  schools,  and  is  gradually 
raising  up  a  formerly  ignorant  and  semi-barbarous  tribe  to  the 
position  of  an  enlightened  and  Christian  people. 

The  population  of  Antananarivo  is  difficult  to  estimate 
exactly.  No  census  appears  to  have  been  taken  by  the  native 
Government,  but  the  houses  have  been  counted  by  some  of  my 
friends,  and  careful  inquiries  made  as  to  the  average  number  of 
occupants,  and  from  these  it  is  believed  by  some  that  the  popu- 
lation of  the  city  is  much  over  100,000.  I  should  be  inclined  to 
put  it  at  from  60,000  to  70,000.^  There  is  frequently  a  large 
number  of  strangers  in  the  capital,  as  people  come  constantly 
from  all  parts  of  the  island  on  Government  business,  bringing 
tribute,  and  receiving  orders  from  the  Sovereign  ;  and  on  special 
occasions,  as  when  levies  of  troops  are  being  made,  &c.,  the 
ordinary  population  of  the  city  must  be  swelled  by  many 
thousands. 

Many  years  ago,  during  the  time  of  the  early  mission  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  a  plan  of  Antananarivo  was  made 
*  Vide  antCj  p.  44,    Population  is  only  43,000. — Ed. 


ANTANANARIVO,  THE  CAPITAL.  5 1 

by  Mr.  Cameron  (whose  name  has  already  been  mentioned  in 
this  chapter),  and  was  pubh'shed  in  Ellis's  History  of  Mada- 
gascar (1838).  The  city  has  of  course  greatly  increased  since 
then  ;  and  within  the  last  six  or  seven  years  a  new  detailed 
plan  to  a  large  scale  has  been  made  from  surveys  by  French 
officers. 

Antananarivo  may  justly  be  considered  the  heart  of  Mada- 
gascar. There  is  the  seat  of  government  and  of  the  most 
advanced  civilisation  of  the  country ;  from  it  go  out  the  Hova 
officers  and  soldiers  who  garrison  every  port  on  the  coast  and 
every  important  town  in  the  interior  ;  from  it  go  out  weekly 
thousands  of  books  and  copies  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  ;  and 
there  are  trained  the  native  doctors  and  surgeons  and  nurses, 
the  schoolmasters  and  evangelists  and  teachers,  who  are  sent  to 
distant  places  to  labour  together  with  their  European  teachers  in 
various  ways  to  benefit  their  fellow-countrymen,  and  to  hasten 
that  day  when,  as  we  hope,  the  whole  of  Madagascar  shall  share 
in  the  advance  and  enlightenment  which  is  already  so  marked 
in  the  central  province  of  Imerina  and  in  the  capital  city,. 
Antananarivo. 


IXDEX  TO  NUMBERS  ON  MAP. 


Commenced. 

Commenced. 

Palace  Church 

1869 

13,  Ambatomitsangana 

1863 

I,  Ambatonakanga  ... 

fi83i 

14.  Fiadanana,  E. 

1867 

I1861 

15.  Fiadanana,  W. 

1872 

2.  Analakely  

1861 

16.  Isoanierana 

1867 

3.  Amparibe  

1861 

17.  Ankadimbahoaka... 

1865 

4.  Ambohipotsy 

...  1863 

18.  Androndra  

1867 

5.  Ankadibevava 

1863 

19.  Mahazoarivo 

1863 

6.  Ampamarinana  ... 

1864 

20.  Ambohimiandra  ... 

1863 

7.  Andohalo  

1864 

21.  Andraisoro... 

1866 

8.  Ambohitantely 

1864 

22.  Ambatoroka 

1869 

9.  Faravohitra 

1868 

23.  Ankadifotsy 

1868 

10.  Imahamasina 

1867 

24.  Tanimena  

1869 

II.  Isotry   

1867 

25,  Anjanahary 

1869 

12.  Ambanidia 

18O8 

26.  Manjakaray 

i86i 

CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR:  NOTES 
ON  THE  CLIMATE,  AGRICULTURE,  SOCIAL  CUSTOMS  OF 
THE  PEOPLE,  AND  VARIED  ASPECTS  OF  THE  MONTHS. 


The  seasons  in  Madagascar — Their  significant  names — Prospect  from  summit  of 
Antananarivo — The  great  rice-plain — Springtime  :  September  and  October — 
Rice-planting  and  rice-fields — First  crop — Trees  and  foliage — "  Burning  the 
Downs  " — Birds — Summer  :  November  to  February — Thunderstorms  and 
tropical  rains — Effects  on  roads — Rainfall — Hail — Magnificent  lightning 
effects — Malagasy  New  Year — Native  calendar — Royal  bathing — Conspicuous 
flowers — Aloes  and  agaves — Christmas  Day  observances — Uniformity  in 
length  of  days — Native  words  and  phrases  for  divisions  of  time — And  for 
natural  phenomena — Effects  of  heavy  rains — Wild  flowers  of  Imerina — 
Autumn  :  March  and  April — Rice  harvest — Harvest  Thanksgiving  Services — 
Mist  effects  on  winter  mornings — Spiders'  webs — Winter  :  May  to  August — 
Winter  the  dry  season — Great  markets — Aspects  of  nightly  sky — Epidemics 
in  cold  season — Vegetation. 


Y  object  in  this  chapter  is  to  describe  the  varied  aspects 


iVA  of  the  different  months  throughout  the  year  in  this 
central  province  of  Imerina,  as  they  present  themselves  to 
any  one  who  lives  in  the  capital  city  of  Antananarivo,  and  is 
frequently  travelling  in  the  country  around  it.  I  want  to  show 
the  variety  of  Nature  during  the  changing  seasons,  as  the  result 
of  the  heat  or  cold,  and  of  the  moisture  or  drought  of  the 
climate,  and  to  point  out  the  changes  resulting  from  the 
different  processes  of  agriculture  carried  on  by  the  Malagasy. 
And  it  must  be  remembered  that  although  this  central  province 
of  Madagascar  is  by  several  degrees  well  within  the  tropics,  our 
climate  for  some  months  of  the  year  is  by  no  means  the 


52 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.  53 

"  tropical "  one  supposed  in  our  ordinary  English  use  of  that 
word.  On  these  interior  highlands,  from  3,000  to  5,000  feet 
above  the  sea  level,  the  south-easterly  winds  blow  from  June  to 
August  with  a  keenness  and  force  which  it  needs  thick  clothing 
to  withstand,  and  makes  a  wood  fire  during  the  long  evenings 
a  very  pleasant  addition  to  the  comforts  of  home  life. 

The  seasons  in  the  central  regions  of  the  island  are  practi- 
cally only  two  :  the  hot  and  rainy  period,  from  the  beginning  of 
November  to  the  end  of  April ;  and  the  cool  and  dry  period, 
during  the  other  months,  from  May  to  October.  The  Malagasy 
are,  however,  accustomed  to  speak  of  four  seasons  of  their  year, 
viz.,  the  LShataona,  i.e.^  "  head  of  the  year,"  during  September 
and  October,  when  the  planting  of  rice  is  going  on  everywhere, 
and  a  few  showers  give  promise  of  the  coming  rains ;  the 
Fahavaratra^  i.e.,  "  thunder-time,"  when  severe  storms  of  thunder 
and  lightning  are  frequent,  with  heavy  downpours  of  rain,  from 
the  early  part  of  November  to  the  end  of  February  or  into 
March  ;  the  Fdrardno,  "  last  rains,"  from  the  beginning  of 
March  and  through  April ;  and  lastly,  the  Ririnina,  i.e.,  "  time 
of  bareness,"  when  the  grass  becomes  dry  and  withered,  from 
June  to  August. 

Taking,  therefore,  the  seasons  in  order,  from  the  beginning, 
not  of  January,  which  gives  no  natural  division  of  the  year,  but 
from  the  early  part  of  September,  when  the  blossoms  on  the 
trees  speak  of  the  "  good  time  coming  "  of  renewed  verdure,  I 
shall  note  down,  in  their  succession,  the  varying  aspects  of  the 
country,  in  climate,  vegetation,  and  culture  of  the  soil,  through- 
out "  the  changing  year." 

Before,  however,  proceeding  to  do  this,  it  may  give  greater 
distinctness  to  the  mental  picture  I  want  to  draw  for  those  who 
have  never  been  in  Madagascar,  if  I  try  to  describe  in  a  few 
words  the  appearance  of  this  central  province  of  the  island, 
especially  of  that  portion  of  it  which  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  capital.  Let  us  go  up  to  the  highest  point  of  the  long 
rocky  ridge  on  and  around  which  Antananarivo  is  built,  from 


54  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

which  we  can  "  view  the  landscape  o'er,"  and  try  and  gain  a 
clear  notion  of  this  "heart  of  Imerina,"  as  it  is  often  called  by 
the  Malagasy.  The  city  hill  reaches  its  greatest  elevation  at  a 
point  called  Ambohimitsimbina,  i.e.,  "  Hill  of  regarding,"  which 
is  700  feet  above  the  general  level  of  the  rice-plains  around  it. 
From  this  "  coign  of  vantage  "  there  is  of  course  a  very  extensive 
view  in  every  direction,  and  we  see  at  once  that  the  surrounding 
country  is  very  mountainous.  East  and  south  there  is  little  but 
hills  of  all  shapes  and  sizes  to  be  seen,  except  along  the  valleys 
of  the  river  Ikopa  and  its  tributaries,  which  come  from  the  edge 
of  the  upper  forest,  thirty  miles  or  so  away  to  the  east.  To  the 
north  the  country  is  more  undulating,  but  at  ten  or  twelve  miles 
away  high  hills  and  moors  close  in  the  view.  Some  of  the  hills 
rise  into  mountains,  as  in  the  case  of  Angavokely  to  the  east, 
Milangana,  Andn'ngitra,  and  Lohavohitra  to  the  north  and 
north-west,  and  Iharanandriana  to  the  south.  The  country  is 
everywhere  in  these  directions,  except  in  the  river  valleys, 
covered  with  red  soil,  through  which  the  granite  and  gneiss 
foundations  protrude  at  almost  every  elevated  point  in  huge 
boulder-like  rocks. 

There  is  little  foliage  to  be  seen,  except  on  the  top  of  some 
of  the  hills,  where  the  ancient  towns  and  villages  were  built, 
and  in  such  places  a  circle  of  old  Aviavy  trees,  with  an  occa- 
sional Anibntana  ^  tree,  gives  a  pleasant  relief  to  the  prevailing 
red  and  ochre  tints  of  the  bare  hills.  The  largest  mass  of  green  is 
at  the  old  capital,  Ambohimanga,  eleven  miles  away  to  the  north, 
where  the  steep  sides  of  the  hill  are  still  covered  with  a  remnant 
of  the  original  forest,  which  formerly  was  doubtless  much  more 
extensive  in  this  part  of  Imerina. 

To  the  west,  from  north  to  south,  the  prospect  differs  con- 
siderably from  that  to  the  east.  To  the  south-west  there  rises 
by  very  gradual  slopes,  at  some  thirty-five  miles'  distance,  the 
mass  of  Ankaratra,  the  highest  point  in  the  island,  its  three  or 
four  crowning  peaks  reaching  an  elevation  of  nearly  9,000  feet 
^  Ficiis  Barorii,  Baker,  and  Ficus  trichosphcvra,  Baker. 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.  55 

above  the  sea,  and  something  more  than  half  that  height  above 
the  general  level  of  the  country.  Due  west  and  north-west  is  a 
considerable  extent  of  level  country,  beyond  which  the  mountain 
of  Ambohimiangara,  sixty  miles  away,  is  seen  on  the  horizon, 
as  well  as  many  other  hills.  In  the  foreground,  stretching  away 
many  miles,  is  the  great  rice-plain  of  Betsimitatatra,  from  which 
numbers  of  low  red  hills,  most  of  them  with  villages,  rise  like 
islands  out  of  a  green  sea  when  the  rice  is  growing  ;  along  the 
plain  the  river  Ikopa  can  be  seen,  winding  its  way  north-west- 
wards to  join  the  Betsiboka ;  the  united  streams,  with  many 
tributaries,  flowing  into  the  sea  at  the  Bay  of  Bembatoka.  This 
great  plain,  "  the  granary  of  Antananarivo,"  was  formerly  an 
immense  marsh,  and  earlier  still  a  lake  ;  but  since  the  embank- 
ing of  the  river  by  some  of  the  early  kings  of  Imerina,  it  has 
become  the  finest  rice-plain  in  the  island,  and,  with  its  con- 
nected valleys,  furnishes  the  bulk  of  the  food  of  the  people  of 
the  central  province. 

From  this  elevated  point  at  least  a  hundred  small  towns  and 
villages  can  be  recognised,  many  of  them  marked  by  the  tiled 
roof  of  the  village  church,  which  shines  out  distinctly  in  the 
sunshine  amid  the  brown  thatched  roofs  of  most  of  the  houses, 
and  can  be  easily  distinguished  at  distances  of  ten  or  twelve 
miles  away.  This  view  from  the  summit  of  the  capital  is 
certainly  in  its  way  unrivalled  for  variety  and  extent,  as  well  as 
for  the  human  interest  of  its  different  parts,  as  shown  by  the 
large  population,  the  great  area  of  cultivated  land,  the  embanked 
rivers,  and  the  streams  and  water-channels  for  irrigation  seen  in 
every  direction. 

Springtime  :  September  and  October. — With  the  early 
days  of  September  we  may  usually  say  that  springtime  in 
Imerina  fairly  sets  in,  and  that  the  year  in  its  natural  aspects 
properly  commences.  By  a  true  instinct,  arising  doubtless  from 
long  observation  of  the  change  of  the  seasons,  the  Malagasy  call 
this  time  Lohataona,  i.e.,  "  the  head,  or  beginning,  of  the  year," 
when  nature  seems  to  awake  from  the  comparative  deadness  of 


56  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

the  cold  and  dry  winter  months,  during  which  the  country  has 
looked  bare  and  uninviting,  but  now  begins  again  to  give 
promise  of  fertility  and  verdure.  The  keen  cold  winds  and 
drizzly  showers  of  the  past  few  weeks  give  place  to  warmer  air 
and  clearer  skies,  and  although  usually  there  is  but  little  rain 
during  September,  the  deciduous  trees  begin  to  put  forth  their 
leaves,  and  flower-buds  appear  as  heralds  of  the  fuller  dis- 
play of  vegetable  life  which  will  be  seen  after  the  rains  have 
fallen. 

The  great  rice-plain  to  the  west  looks,  during  the  early  days 
of  the  Lbhataona^  bare  and  brown ;  but  we  shall  see  that  in  various 
places,  where  the  plain  borders  the  low  rising  grounds  on  which 
the  villages  are  built,  there  are  bright  patches  of  vivid  green. 
These  are  the  ketsa  grounds,  or  smaller  rice-fields,  where  the 
rice  is  first  sown  thick  and  broadcast,  and  where  it  grows  for  a 
month  or  two  before  being  planted  out  in  the  larger  fields. 
These  ketsa  patches  begin  to  be  very  numerous  also  in  the 
smaller  valleys  which  are  found  in  every  part  of  the  province  ; 
and  as  soon  as  the  young  plants  are  4  or  5  inches  high 
they  are  frequently  strewn  over  with  long  dry  grass  to  protect 
them  from  the  hot  sun  by  day  as  well  as  from  the  cold  winds  by 
night.  In  other  rice-patches  large  fronds  of  bracken  fern  are 
used  for  the  same  purpose,  and  small  branches  of  trees  are  also 
stuck  along  the  edges  of  the  enclosures,  which  are  divided  from 
each  other  by  a  low  bank  of  earth,  a  few  inches  broad  and  only 
a  foot  or  two  in  height. 

As  the  season  advances  the  people  begin  to  be  busy  digging 
up  their  rice-fields,  the  clods  being  piled  up  in  heaps  and  rows 
in  order  to  give  the  soil  the  benefit  of  exposure  to  the  sun  and 
air.  All  this  work  is  done  by  the  native  long-handled  and  long- 
and  narrow-bladed  spade,  driven  into  the  ground  by  the  weight 
of  the  handle,  as  the  Malagasy  wear  no  shoes,  and  so  could  not 
drive  down  the  spade  by  the  foot  in  European  fashion,  while  the 
plough  is  still  an  unknown  implement  to  them.  The  water- 
courses, by  which  water  is  brought  to  every  rice-plot,  are  now 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.  57 

being  repaired  in  all  directions.  The  chief  supply  of  water  is 
from  the  springs  found  at  the  head  of  almost  every  valley,  which 
is  carefully  led  by  channels  cut  and  embanked  round  the  curves 
of  the  hillsides,  being  often  taken  thus  for  a  considerable  distance 
from  its  source.  Eventually  this  little  canal  resolves  itself  into 
a  small  stream  traversing  the  valley,  from  which  smaller  channels 
convey  the  water  to  every  field,  so  as  to  moisten  the  clods  after 
they  have  been  dug  over. 

The  water-supply  for  the  great  Betsimitatatra  plain  is  derived 
from  the  Ikopa  river  and  its  tributaries  the  Andromba,  the 
Sisaony,  the  Mamba,  and  other  streams.  Canals  tap  these  rivers 
at  various  points,  in  order  to  irrigate  the  fields  at  lower  levels 
further  down  their  course.  A  large  quantity  of  water  is  thus 
diverted  from  the  rivers  during  September  and  October,  so  that 
the  smaller  streams  are  almost  dry,  and  even  the  Ikopa  and  its 
affluents,  good-sized  rivers  at  other  times  of  the  year,  then 
become  shallow  and  easily  fordable. 

Before  the  end  of  October  a  large  extent  of  the  great  plain, 
especially  to  the  north  and  north-west,  is  completely  planted 
with  rice ;  and  a  green  level,  looking  like  one  vast  lawn, 
stretches  away  for  many  miles  in  this  direction,  without  any 
break  or  visible  divisions.  This  green  is  the  vary  albha^  or 
"  former  rice,"  the  first  crop,  which  will  become  ripe  in  the  month 
of  January,  or  early  in  February.  Smaller  expanses  of  bright 
green  appear  in  other  directions  also,  especially  along  the  courses 
of  the  rivers,  but  a  considerable  extent  of  the  plain  directly  to 
the  west  of  the  capital  is  still  russet  brown  in  colour,  and  will 
not  be  planted  until  a  month  or  two  later.  From  this  will  come 
the  later  rice  crop,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  {vary)  vaky  ainbiaty, 
which  is  planted  in  November  or  December,  and  becomes  fit  for 
cutting  about  April.  This  latter  crop  is  so  called  because  the 
flowering  of  t)\Q  Ambidty  shrub, ^  about  November,  gives  notice 
to  the  people  that  planting-time  has  come.  This  shrub  is  very 
conspicuous  about  this  time  of  the  year  from  its  masses  of  white 
flowers. 

*  Vcnwnia  appcndicnlata,  Less. 


58  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

The  ketsa  grounds  are  covered  before  sowing  with  a  layer 
of  wood  and  straw  ashes,  so  that  they  have  quite  a  black 
appearance.  Before  this,  however,  the  clods  have  been  broken 
up  and  worked  by  the  spade  into  a  soft  mud,  with  an  inch  or 
two  of  water  over  all,  and  on  this  the  grain  is  sown  broadcast, 
springing  up  in  two  or  three  weeks'  time  and  looking  like  a 
brilliant  emerald  carpet. 

There  are  usually  a  few  heavy  showers  about  the  end  of 
September  or  the  early  part  of  October,  which  are  called  rdno- 
norana  niampisara-taona,  i.e.,  "  rain  dividing  the  year " ;  but 
occasionally  no  rain  falls  until  the  rainy  season  regularly  com- 
mences, so  it  is  dry  and  dusty  everywhere,  the  ground  cracks, 
and  everything  seems  thirsting  for  moisture.  The  heat  increases 
as  the  sun  gets  more  nearly  vertical  with  the  advancing  season, 
although  the  nights  are  pleasantly  cool.  Yet  notwithstanding 
the  dry  soil,  the  trees  are  beginning  to  blossom.  Most  con- 
spicuous among  them  is  the  Cape-lilac,^  a  tree  introduced  from 
South  Africa  about  seventy  years  ago  by  the  first  L.M.S. 
missionaries,  and  now  thoroughly  naturalised.  It  grows  to  be 
a  good-sized  tree,  and  many  hundreds  of  them  are  to  be  seen 
in  all  the  suburbs  of  Antananarivo,  making  them  gay  with  the 
profusion  of  lilac  flowers  which  cover  the  trees,  and  fragrant 
with  their  strong  perfume. 

There  are  many  large  orchards  in  Imerina,  thickly  planted 
with  mango-trees,  and  about  this  time  the  green  of  the  leaves 
is  largely  mingled  with  a  tinting  of  reddish  brown,  which  is 
caused  by  the  masses  of  flowers  in  the  upper  part  of  the  trees. 
The  low  banks  of  earth  which  form  the  boundary  walls  of 
plantations  are  largely  planted  with  a  species  of  Euphorbia,^  of 
which  there  are  two  varieties — one  with  brilliant  scarlet  bracts, 
and  the  other  of  pale  yellow  tint,  the  leaves  appearing  on  the 
prickly  stems  later  on. 

As  the  season  advances,  the  people  burn  the  grass  over  the 
hillsides  and  the  open  moor  country,  so  as  to  get  rid  of  the 

^  Mclia  Azcdcradi,  L.  ^  Euphorbia  sf-lcndcns,  Bojer. 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.  59 


long  dry  grass  and  to  obtain  a  crop  of  green  herbage  as  soon 
as  the  rains  have  fallen  plentifully.  This  has  an  unpleasant 
appearance  by  day,  from  the  immense  black  patches  of  charred 
vegetation  to  be  seen  in  every  direction  ;  and  frequently  the 
hedges  and  smaller  trees  are  destroyed  as  well.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  to  this  practice  of  iiiandSro  tanety  burning  the 
down "),  as  it  is  called,  is  largely  attributable  the  bare  and 
treeless  appearance  of  the  central  provinces.  The  young  trees 
which  would  spring  up,  especially  in  the  hollows  and  sheltered 
places,  have  no  chance  against  the  yearly  fires  which  sweep  over 
the  country,  and  the  little  vegetation  which  has  held  its  own  is 
constantly  liable  to  be  lessened  as  time  goes  on.  Sometimes  a 
dozen  fires,  long  curving  lines  of  flame,  may  be  seen  at  night 
in  different  directions ;  and  a  ruddy  glow  in  the  sky  often  shows 
the  places  where  the  actual  fire  is  hidden  from  view  by  inter- 
vening hills.  Mandbro  tanety  thus  gives  a  strangely  picturesque 
appearance  to  the  nights  of  springtime  in  Imerina. 

The  weather  often  gets  very  hot  and  sultry  before  the  rains 
come  on,  indeed  the  heat  is  greater  and  more  trying  at  this 
time  than  in  the  summer  itself,  w^hen  the  frequent  storms  freshen 
the  air,  and  the  rain  cools  the  earth.  The  clear  skies  and  pure 
atmosphere  of  other  months  are  exchanged  for  thick,  oppressive 
days,  when  the  distant  hills  disappear  altogether,  and  the  nearer 
ones  seem  quite  distant  in  the  dense  haze.  These  atmospheric 
conditions  are  probably  due  to  the  grass-burning  just  described, 
and  also  to  the  frequent  burning  of  the  forest  away  to  the  east. 
As  the  weather  gets  warmer,  a  few  birds  come  up  from  the 
wooded  regions  of  the  island,  and  wherever  there  is  a  small 
patch  of  wood,  the  oft-repeated  cry  of  the  Kankafotra,  the 
Madagascar  Cuckoo,  may  be  heard,  much  resembling  the 
syllables  kow-kozu,  kow-kow-koo!'  The  querulous  cry  of  the 
noisy  little  Hitsikitsika,  or  Kestrel,  is  heard  continually,  for  he 
and  his  mate  are  now  bringing  up  their  young  brood  and  busily 
seeking  food  for  them.  As  we  walk  over  the  downs,  the 
Sorbhitra,  the  native  Lark,  darts  up  from  her  nest  on  the  bare 


6o  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

ground,  with  a  note  somewhat  like  that  of  her  European  cousin's, 
but  not  so  full  and  sweet. 

As  the  end  of  October  draws  near,  the  people  are  busily  at 
work,  not  only  in  the  rice-fields,  but  also  repairing  their  houses, 
mending  their  grass  or  rush  roofs,  and  hurrying  on  their  sun- 
dried  brick  or  clay  building  before  the  heavy  rains  fall.  Although 
a  large  number  of  burnt-brick  houses,  with  tiled  roofs,  have  now 
been  erected,  the  majority  of  native  dwellings  are  still  of  the 
cheaper  materials  ;  and  everything  of  the  kind  must  be  finished, 
or  at  least  well  protected  from  the  weather,  before  the  rainy 
season  comes  on.  The  watercourses,  too,  need  attention,  and 
the  river  banks  must  be  repaired,  lest  a  succession  of  heavy 
rains  should  swell  the  streams,  break  through  the  embankments, 
and  flood  the  rice-plains. 

Summer:  November,  December,  January,  and  Feb- 
ruary.— Summer  is  not  only  the  hot  season,  but  it  is  also  the 
rainy  season,  very  little  rain  falling  at  any  other  time  of  the 
year.  It  is  accordingly  called  by  the  Malagasy  Fdhavdratra, 
i.e.,  "  thunder-time,"  since  almost  all  heavy  rain  is  accompanied 
by  a  thunderstorm  ;  and  taking  the  average  of  a  good  many 
years,  this  season  may  be  said  to  commence  at  the  beginning  of 
November. 

As  the  sun  gets  every  day  more  nearly  vertical  at  noon,  on 
his  passage  towards  the  southern  tropic,  the  heat  increases,  and 
the  electric  tension  of  the  air  becomes  more  oppressive.  For  a 
week  or  more  previous  to  the  actual  commencement  of  the  rains, 
the  clouds  gather  towards  evening,  and  the  heavens  are  lighted 
up  at  night  by  constant  flashes  of  lightning.  But  at  length, 
after  a  few  days  of  this  sultry  weather,  towards  mid-day  the 
huge  cumuli  gather  thickly  over  the  sky  and  gradually  unite 
into  a  dense  mass,  purple  black  in  colour,  and  soon  the  thunder 
is  heard.  It  rapidly  approaches  nearer  and  nearer,  the  clouds 
touching  the  lower  hills,  then  down  darts  the  forked  lightning, 
followed  by  the  roar  of  the  thunder,  and  presently  a  wild  rush 
of  wind,  as  if  it  came  from  all  quarters  at  once,  tells  us  that  the 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.       6 1 


Storm  is  upon  us,  and  then  comes  the  rain  in  big,  heavy  drops 
for  a  few  seconds  and  soon  in  torrents,  as  if  the  sluice-gates  of 
the  clouds  were  opened.  The  lightning  is  almost  incessant,  and 
for  half  an  hour  or  so  there  is  often  hardly  any  interval  between 
the  crashing  and  reverberations  of  the  thunder  peals,  the  hills 
around  the  capital  echoing  back  the  roar  from  the  clouds. 
Certainly  a  heavy  thunderstorm  in  Madagascar  is  not  without 
a  considerable  element  of  danger,  especially  for  any  one  caught 
in  a  storm  in  the  open,  or  in  a  house  unprotected  by  a  lightning- 
conductor.  Every  house  of  any  pretensions  in  the  central 
provinces  has  this  safeguard,  for  every  year  many  people  are 
killed  by  lightning — some  while  walking  in  the  road,  and  others 
in  houses  unprotected  by  a  conductor ;  for  instance,  one  of  our 
college  students,  travelling  with  wife  and  children  to  the 
Betsileo,  was  killed  instantaneously,  as  well  as  a  slave  near  him, 
when  sitting  in  a  native  house,  while  a  child  he  was  nursing  at 
the  time  escaped  with  a  few  burns  only. 

A  large  quantity  of  rain  sometimes  falls  during  such  storms 
in  a  very  short  time.  On  the  19th  of  January,  1892,  3 J  inches 
fell  in  less  than  half  an  hour ;  and  as  the  streets  and  paths 
through  the  capital  are  all  very  steep,  and  from  the  rocky 
nature  of  the  whole  hill  there  can  be  no  underground  drainage, 
it  may  be  imagined  what  a  roar  of  water  there  is  all  over  the 
city  after  such  a  storm.  The  three  or  four  chief  thoroughfares 
are  transformed  into  the  beds  of  rushing  torrents  and  series  of 
cascades,  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  most  of  the  highways  of  the 
capital  get  deeper  and  deeper  every  year.  Even  where  there 
is  an  attempt  at  a  rough  paving,  a  single  storm  will  often  tear 
it  up  and  pile  the  stones  together  in  a  big  hole,  with  no  more 
order  than  obtains  in  the  bed  of  a  cataract.  After  the  rains  are 
over,  the  red  soil  is  dug  away  from  the  sides  to  fill  up  the 
channel  cut  by  the  torrent,  and  so  the  road  gradually  sinks 
below  the  walls  of  the  compounds  on  either  side  of  it. 

Taking  the  average  of  eleven  years  (i  881 -1890),  the  annual 
rainfall  of  Antananarivo  was  52  inches  ;  and  of  this,  omitting 


62  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

decimals,  5J  inches  fell  in  October,  5f  inches  in  November,  10^ 
inches  in  December,  1 1  inches  in  January,  9  inches  in  February, 
8  inches  in  March,  and  2  inches  in  April  ;  so  that  December 
and  January  are  the  wettest  months,  during  which  rain  falls 
usually  on  two  days  out  of  every  three. 

It  is  very  unusual  for  thunderstorms  to  occur  in  the  morning, 
they  mostly  come  on  in  the  afternoon  ;  and  after  the  first  heavy 
downpour,  a  steady  rain  will  often  continue  for  three  or  four 
hours,  and  occasionally  far  into  the  night.  It  is  generally  bright 
and  fine  in  the  early  morning ;  all  vegetation  is  refreshed  by 
the  plentiful  moisture ;  and  the  people  are  busy  in  their  planta- 
tions on  the  sloping  hillsides,  digging  up  the  softened  earth  for 
planting  manioc,  sweet  potatoes,  the  edible  arum,  and  many 
other  vegetables. 

Hail  also  very  frequently  falls  during  these  thunderstorms, 
and  should  it  be  late  in  the  season,  when  the  rice  is  in  ear,  great 
damage  is  often  done  to  the  growing  crop.  A  large  extent  of 
rice-field  will  sometimes  be  stripped  of  every  grain,  the  stalks 
standing  up  like  bare  sticks.  Charms  against  hail  had  therefore 
in  the  old  heathen  times  a  prominent  place  in  the  popular 
beliefs  and,  there  can  be  little  doubt,  are  still  trusted  in  and 
used  by  many  of  the  more  ignorant  people.  Occasionally  the 
hailstones  are  of  very  large  size  and  kill  sheep  and  small 
animals,  if  they  are  left  unsheltered.  I  remember  a  storm  of 
this  kind  (Oct.  22,  1887),  when  the  hailstones  were  as  large  as 
good-sized  nuts,  while  some  were  cushion-shaped  and  hexagonal 
with  a  hollow  in  the  centre,  and  nearly  ij  inches  in  diameter. 
In  other  cases  they  have  been  seen  as  jagged  lumps  of  ice  ;  and 
it  may  be  easily  imagined  that  it  is  very  unpleasant  and  some- 
what dangerous  to  be  exposed  to  such  a  fusilade. 

Besides  the  thunderstorms  like  those  just  described,  which 
come  so  close  and  are  often  so  awful  in  their  results,  there  is 
another  kind  of  storm  we  frequently  see  in  the  rainy  season 
which  is  an  unmixed  source  of  delight.  This  is  when,  for  two 
or  three  hours  together  in  the  evening,  a  large  portion  of  the 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.  63 

sky  is  lighted  up  by  an  almost  incessant  shimmer  of  lightning. 
All  the  time  no  thunder  is  heard  from  this  celestial  display,  but 
it  is  most  fascinating  to  watch  the  infinitely  varied  effects  of 
light  and  darkness. 

As  the  Malagasy  New  Year's  Day  now  comes  in  the  month 
of  November,  it  may  be  fitting  to  say  something  here  about  the 
native  division  of  time.  The  Malagasy  months  are  lunar  ones 
and  therefore  their  year,  reckoning  by  the  months,  is  eleven 
days  shorter  than  our  own,  the  first  day  of  their  year  coming 
consequently  at  different  times,  from  the  first  to  the  twelfth 
month,  until  the  cycle  is  complete.  When  I  first  came  to 
Madagascar  (in  1863),  the  Malagasy  New  Year's  Day,  that  is, 
the  first  of  Alahamady,  was  in  the  month  of  March,  and  in  this 
year,  1894,  the  first  of  that  Malagasy  month  fell  on  the  6th  of 
April,  the  cycle  of  thirty-three  years  being  thus  nearly  finished. 
But  since  the  accession  of  the  present  Sovereign,  Queen  Rana- 
valona  III.,  in  1883,  the  22nd  of  November,  which  is  her 
Majesty's  birthday,  has  been  fixed  as  the  invariable  New  Year's 
Day  ;  and  most  of  the  old  ceremonies  always  observed  previous 
to  the  year  1883  on  the  first  day  of  the  first  month  (Alahamady) 
are  now  kept  up  on  the  eve  of  November  22nd.  The  old  New 
Year's  Day,  the  birthday  of  the  father  of  Radama  I.,  is  still, 
however,  held  in  remembrance  by  the  firing  of  cannon  on  the 
first  of  Alahamady.  The  Malagasy  appear  never  to  have 
made  any  attempt,  by  the  insertion  of  intercalary  days  or  any 
other  contrivance,  to  fill  up  their  shorter  year  to  the  true  time 
occupied  in  the  earth's  annual  revolution  round  the  sun  ;  for  of 
course  they  must  have  noticed  that  their  months  came  at  quite 
different  periods  after  a  very  few  years.  The  names  of  the 
Malagasy  months  in  use  in  the  central  province  and  in  most 
other  parts  of  the  island  are  all  Arabic  in  origin,  as  indeed  are 
the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week.  In  some  districts,  however, 
other  names  are  employed,  which  mostly  appear  to  be  purely 
Malagasy  words.  It  may  be  noticed  here  that  the  Malagasy 
month-names  are  not  the  Arabic  names  for  the  months,  but  are 


64  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

the  Arabic  words  for  the  twelve  constellations  of  the  Zodiac. 
Thus,  Alahamady  is  the  Ram,  Adaoro  is  the  Bull  {daoro=taurus), 
Adizaoza  is  the  Twins,  and  so  on.  This  appears  to  have  arisen 
from  the  connection  between  astrology  and  the  divination  {sikidy) 
introduced  by  the  Arabs  several  centuries  ago. 

A  full  account  of  the  Fandrbana  or  "  Bathing,"  as  the  New 
Year's  festival  is  called,  cannot  be  given  here,  as  a  complete 
description  would  form  a  separate  chapter  of  some  length.  It 
must  suffice  to  say  that  although  some  of  the  ancient  customs 
have  fallen  and  are  still  falling  into  disuse,  most  of  them  are 
still  kept  up.  The  most  prominent  of  these  are  the  following  : — 
(i)  The  lighting  of  little  bundles  of  dried  grass  at  dusk  on  the 
evenings  of  the  20th  and  the  2 1st  of  November,  the  latter,  the 
eve  of  the  22nd,  being  considered  as  the  commencement  of  the 
New  Year's  Day  itself,  for  the  Malagasy,  like  other  Orientals, 
reckon  "  the  evening  and  the  morning  "  as  the  proper  order  of 
the  day.  These  fires,  possibly  a  relic  of  the  old  fire-worship, 
are  called  harendrina,  and  form  one  of  the  most  pleasing  features 
of  the  festival  in  the  gathering  darkness  of  the  evening.  (2) 
The  ceremonial  Royal  Bathing  at  the  great  Palace,  when  all 
the  principal  people  of  the  kingdom  are  present,  as  well  as 
representative  foreigners,  is  perhaps  the  most  prominent  of  all 
the  ceremonies,  giving,  as  it  does,  the  name  to  the  whole  festival. 
This  is  followed  by  a  ceremonial  bathing,  or  at  least  sprinkling 
of  water,  by  all  households.  (3)  On  the  following  day  comes 
the  killing  of  oxen,  doubtless  the  most  important  of  all  Fan- 
droana  observances  in  the  estimation  of  the  people  generally,  at 
any  rate  of  the  poorer  classes,  who  then  get,  for  once  a  year  at 
least,  a  plentiful  supply  of  beef  Presents  of  the  newly-killed 
meat  are  sent  about  in  all  directions  to  relatives  and  friends,  and 
feasting  and  merrymaking  prevail  for  several  days  among  all 
classes.  (4)  For  some  time  previous  to  the  actual  festival,  it  is 
customary  for  the  Malagasy  to  visit  their  elders  and  superiors 
in  rank,  bringing  presents  of  money,  fowls,  fruit,  &c.,  using 
certain  complimentary  formula  and  expressions  of  good  wishes. 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.  65 

The  abundant  rains  which  usually  fall  in  November  soon 
make  the  hills  and  downs,  which  have  got  so  brown  and  dry 
during  the  cold  season,  to  become  green  again,  and  although 
wild  flowers  are  certainly  not  plentiful,  there  are  several  kinds 
which  now  make  their  appearance.  Among  these  are  the 
Vonenina,^  with  large  pink  flowers  ;  the  Avoko,^  bright  crimson  ; 
the  Nijinakanga.i  deep  blue  ;  several  small  vetch-like  plants 
with  yellow  flowers  ;  many  others  with  minute  yellow  compound 
flowers,  and  some  few  other  kinds. 

Besides  flowers  growing  on  the  ground,  there  are  many  shrubs 
and  small  trees  now  in  blossom,  although  some  are  by  no  means 
confined  in  floral  display  to  the  warm  and  rainy  season.  Along 
the  hedges  in  one  or  two  localities  is  a  small  bush,  with  clusters 
of  purple  flowers,  called  Famdmo ;  4  branches  of  these  shrubs 
are  sometimes  placed  in  a  pool  or  stream,  so  as  to  stupefy,  and 
thus  easily  obtain,  any  fish  present  in  the  water.  Very  con- 
spicuous are  the  bright  yellow  flowers  of  the  Tainakbho  5  and  the 
Tsidfakbmby ^  and  the  orange  yellow  spikes  of  the  SevaJ  More 
showy  and  handsome  still  perhaps  are  the  abundant  large  yellow 
flowers  of  the  prickly-pear,  which  is  so  largely  used  for  hedges 
and  for  the  defences  of  the  old  towns  and  villages.  A  species 
of  Hibiscus^  is  not  uncommon,  with  yellow  flowers,  which  have 
deep  red  in  the  centre  ;  yellow  seems  indeed  the  most  common 
colour  in  the  flora  of  Imerina.  At  this  time  of  the  year  also 
three  or  four  species  of  aloe  come  into  flower.  The  larger  of 
these,  called  Vdhona  9  by  the  Malagasy,  is  much  used  for  plant- 
ing as  a  hedge,  from  its  fleshy  leaves  being  armed  with  sharp 
prickles  ;  its  tall  flower-spike  shoots  up  very  rapidly  to  a  height 
of  4  or  6  feet.  Another  and  smaller  one,  called  Sahondra,^^  has 
its  flowers  branching  at  the  top  of  the  stalk  something  like  a 
candelabrum.    The  numerous  flowers  attract,  as  they  expand, 

^  Vinca  rosea,  L.  ^  Vigiia  augivcnsis,  Baker. 

3  Commclyna  madagascarica,  C.  B.  Clarke.     ■*  Mundnlca  siiherosa,  Benth. 
5  Cassia  laevigata,  Willd.  ^  Ca'saipinia  scpiaria,  Roxb. 

7  Bnddlcia  madagascariemis,  Lam.         ^  Hibiscus  divcrsifolius,  Jacq. 
5  Aloe  inacroclada,  Baker.  ^°  Aloe  capitata,  Baker. 

6 


66 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


swarms  of  bees.  Another  plant,  like  an  aloe  in  appearance, 
called  TarHra^  by  the  natives,  has  long  leaves,  with  a  sharp 
spine  at  the  ends  only ;  and  its  flower-stalk  shoots  up  like  a 
small  mast  to  a  height  of  20  feet,  with  widely-spreading  branch- 
lets  and  an  immense  number  of  light-coloured  flowers.  Strong 
fibre  used  as  thread  is  obtained  from  the  leaves,  the  name  of  the 
plant  being  indeed  that  used  for  "  thread."  The  tall  flower-stalks 
of  these  aloes  and  agaves  form  quite  a  noticeable  feature  in 
the  Imerina  landscape  in  the  early  summer.  In  the  orchards, 
soon  after  the  mango  has  finished  flowering,  we  may  see  the 
curious  whitish  flowers  of  the  Rose-apple,^  a  sort  of  ball  of  long 
stamens,  showing  conspicuously  among  the  foliage. 

Towards  the  beginning  of  December  the  earlier  crop  of  rice 
comes  into  ear ;  and  should  the  rains  fall  as  usual  during 
November,  the  remaining  portions  of  the  great  rice-plain  will 
be  all  planted  out  with  the  later  crop,  the  whole  of  the  level  and 
its  branching  valleys  presenting  an  unbroken  expanse  of  green. 
Of  this,  the  early  rice  shows  distinctly  as  a  darker  shade  of 
colour,  although  it  will  soon  begin  to  turn  yellow,  as  the  grain 
ripens  under  the  steady  heat  and  the  plentiful  rainfall.  Perhaps 
this  is  the  time  when  Betsimitatatra  is  seen  in  its  most  attractive 
and  beautiful  aspect,  for  every  part  of  it  is  covered  with  rice  in 
some  stage  or  other  of  growth  and  cultivation. 

Since  the  reception  of  Christianity  by  the  people  of  the 
central  provinces  of  Madagascar,  Christmas  Day  has  become  a 
very  generally  observed  festival.  As  far  as  can  be  ascertained, 
the  first  Protestant  missionaries  (i 820-1 836)  do  not  appear  to 
have  enjoined  its  observance  upon  their  converts  ;  it  seems  to 
have  become  customary  to  keep  it  as  a  festival  at  some  time 
during  the  suppression  of  open  Christian  worship,  probably 
during  the  latter  years  of  Ranavalona  I.,  when  severe  measures 
against  the  "  praying  people  "  became  less  common.  However 
this  may  be,  on  the  re-establishment  of  the  L.M.S.  Mission  in 
1862,  the  observance  of  Christmas  became  very  general  with  the 

^  Agave  Ixtli,  Karw.  ^  Eugenia  malaccensis,  L. 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.  67 

Christians,  and  it  has  kept  its  hold  upon  them  ever  since. 
Every  congregation  meets  in  the  morning  of  the  day,  either  in 
its  own  church,  or,  more  frequently,  in  the  case  of  the  country 
people,  in  large  united  gatherings  of  half  a  dozen  to  a  dozen 
neighbouring  congregations  in  the  open  air.  Looking  round  on 
the  country  from  any  good  position  in  the  capital  during  the 
forenoon  of  Christmas  Day  and  following  days,  one  may  see  at 
many  miles'  distance,  on  various  elevated  points,  a  great  mass 
of  white,  showing  where  one  of  these  large  assemblies  is 
gathered  together  for  worship.  To  such  services  people  who 
are  seldom  seen  at  church  on  other  occasions  make  a  point  of 
coming  ;  although  one  can  hardly  believe  that  their  motives  for 
attendance  even  then  are  of  a  very  high  order.  It  is  a  great 
day  for  showing  off  the  best  dresses  the  people  possess,  or  can 
borrow  or  hire  for  the  occasion  ;  the  men  often  look  very  un- 
comfortable and  awkward  in  suits  of  European  cloth  clothing, 
instead  of  their  far  more  becoming  and  graceful  native  Idinba, 
over  white  shirt  and  trousers.  And  the  women,  although  they 
wisely  retain  the  lamba,  often  have  these  of  brightly  coloured 
silk,  and  they  also  consider  it  a  point  of  good  breeding  to  sport 
the  smartest  of  shoes  and  boots  they  can  procure,  although  they 
seldom  cramp  their  feet  in  such  uncomfortable  contrivances  on 
other  occasions.  Jewellery,  coral  beads,  and  other  ornaments 
are  brought  out,  their  hair  is  elaborately  plaited,  handsome 
embroidered  dresses  are  worn,  smart  parasols  and  sun-shades 
are  carried,  and  every  one  tries  to  get  something  extra  to  show 
himself,  and  especially  herself,  to  the  best  advantage. 

Great  pains  and  trouble  are  often  taken  to  get  up  special 
hymns,  or  at  least  musical  compositions  with  some  Scripture  or 
religious  allusions  in  them,  for  the  Christmas  services  ;  these  are 
often  elaborate  and  wonderful  performances,  and  [sometimes  the 
teacher  is  paid  a  considerable  sum  for  his  trouble  in  training  his 
choir.  Several  sermons  or  addresses  are  delivered  at  these  out- 
door gatherings,  and  the  services  of  popular  and  eloquent  preachers 
are  often  secured,  so  as  to  give  greater  interest  to  the  occasion. 


68  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

About  Christmas-time  also  many  congregations  have  a  feast 
together,  generally  in  some  mango  orchard,  for  the  sake  of  the 
shade.  Here  the  people  are  arranged  in  rows  on  either  side  of 
primitive  tablecloths  consisting  of  fresh  banana-leaves.  Great 
piles  of  boiled  rice  are  brought  in  huge  wooden  platters, 
generally  the  sahdfa  or  rice-winnowing  dish  ;  while  the  laoka  or 
accompaniments,  consisting  of  stewed  beef  or  geese  or  fowls, 
with  gravy  and  green  vegetables,  is  brought  in  any  and  every 
kind  of  crockery  that  can  be  borrowed  for  the  feast.  The  repast 
is  concluded  by  a  dessert  of  sliced  pineapple,  peaches,  and 
bananas,  all  of  which  fruits  are  cheap  and  plentiful  ;  and  it  is  a 
pleasant  sight  to  see  the  people  enjoy  themselves  in  this 
innocent  fashion. 

In  Imerina  there  is  only  about  two  hours'  difference  in  the 
length  of  the  longest  day,  about  Christmas,  and  the  shortest 
day,  early  in  July.  It  is  dark  at  about  seven  o'clock  on  the  ist 
of  January,  and  at  about  six  o'clock  on  the  ist  of  July.  Thus 
we  have  no  long  evenings  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  we  escape 
the  long  nights  and  the  short  days  of  the  English  winter.  We 
lose  also  the  long  twilights  of  the  temperate  zone,  although  I 
have  never  seen  the  almost  instantaneous  darkness  one  some- 
times reads  about  in  books  as  following  the  sunset.  There  is 
a  twilight  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes'  duration  in  this 
part  of  Madagascar.  Very  seldom  have  we  a  wet  morning  in 
any  part  of  the  year,  and  the  heat  is  not  more  oppressive  than 
it  often  is  in  hot  summers  in  England. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  notice  at  this  point  the  numerous 
words  used  by  the  Malagasy  to  indicate  the  different  times  of 
the  day,  from  morning  to  evening.  Clocks  and  watches  are 
comparatively  a  recent  introduction  into  Madagascar,  nor  do 
the  people  ever  seem  to  have  contrived  any  kind  of  sun-dial, 
although,  as  will  be  seen,  they  did  use  something  else  as  a  kind 
of  substitute  for  such  a  timekeeper.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  the  hours  given  (counting  in  European  fashion)  as  equiva- 
lents for  these  native  divisions  of  the  night  and  the  day  are 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.  69 

only  approximations,  and  must  be  taken  as  the  mean  of  the 
year,  or,  in  other  words,  at  about  the  time  of  equal  day  and 
night,  towards  the  end  of  March  or  of  September.  They  are  as 
follows : — 


(Manuitoii'  alina, 

Centre  of  night,  \ 

or 

or            \  about 

12.0 

{Misiisaka  alitia, 

Halving  of  night,  j  midnight 

Maucno  sahotui, 

Frog-croaking, 

)) 

2.0 

a.m. 

Manctio  akoJio, 

Cock-crowing, 

M 

3-0 

>> 

Maraina  aliiia  koa, 

Morning  also  night, 

>J 

4.0 

>> 

Mauciio  goaika, 

Crow  croaking, 

M 

5-0 

)) 

1" Mhuga  vodilanitra, 

Bright  horizon,  ^ 

-;  Mangoiui'  otsindnaiia, 
(  Ma  ng)  ra  11-d  ra  tsy. 

Reddish  east  r 
Glimmer  of  day,  j 

>> 

5-15 

)> 

A  hita  n-tsbmtr'  dm  by, 

Colours  of  cattle  can  be  seen, 

?> 

5-30 

)» 

Maztii'u  I'liisy 

Dusk, 

)) 

))  )> 

M 

Mifoha  olo-uiazoto, 

Diligent  people  awake. 

)> 

>>  j» 

>> 

Maraina  koa, 

Early  morning. 

)) 

J> 

1'  Vdky  masoaiuiro, 
-j  Vdky  diidro, 

Sunrise,  \ 

Daybreak,  V 

J> 

6.0 

>» 

KPiakdndro, 

Antodndro  be  udnahdry, 

Broad  davlight, ) 

Efa  bdiia  iiy  diidro, 

/ 

M 

n  )) 

I> 

Miln'ntsaua  diido, 

Dew-falls, 

M 

6.15 

>> 

Mivoaka  omby, 

Cattle  go  out  (to  pasture). 

„ 

))  )) 

>) 

Maim-bohon-drdvi'na, 

Leaves  are  dry  (from  dew'), 

6.30 

Afa-d  id  twm-pa  n  dla , 

Hoar-frost  disappears,        |  ^ 

6.45 

Maiidra  vdva  iiy  dndro, 

The  day  chills  the  mouth,  J 

1) 

>) 

Mi'sd iidra  tra  d  udro, 

Advance  of  the  day. 

)5 

8.0 

>> 

Mitafao  lidratra, 

Over  (at  a  right  angle  with)  the 

purlin. 

)) 

9.0 

)> 

Mitatao  vovonana, 

Over  the  ridge  of  the  roof. 

)) 

12.0  noon 

Maiidray  tokouana  iiy  dndro, 

Day  taking  hold  of  the  thres- 

hold. 

)  J 

12.30  p.m. 

/Mitsidika  diidro, 

Peeping-in  of  the  day,  ^ 

-  Ldtsaka  iray  dia  iiy  dndro, 

Day  less  one  step  (=hour  ?),  j. 

)) 

I.O 

[Soldfak'  diidro, 

Slipping  of  the  day,  j 

n 

1-3 

i> 

{Tdfaldtsaka  tiy  diidro,"^ 

Decline  of  the  day  = 

to 

{MiJiilana  iiy  dndro,  / 

afternoon. 

2.0 

A  ui-pitotba  ni-bdry. 

At  the  rice-pounding  place. 

n 

n  >) 

)) 

(Mby  amiii'  ny  dndry  ny  dndro,  At  the  house-post, 

?t  )> 

M 

"( A ni-faniatoran-Jdiiak'  bmby, 

At  the  place  of  tying  the  calf. 

3-0 

5) 

Mby  am-pisbko  ny  dndro, 

At  the  sheep  or  poultry  pen, 

)) 

4.0 

;i 

Mbdy  bmby  tcra-bao, 

The  cow  newly  calved  comes 

home, 

)> 

4.30 

^  These  only  refer  to  the  two  or  three  winter  months. 


70 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


Tafaphka  iiy  audro, 


Sun  touching  (i.e.,  the  eastern 
wall),  a 
Cattle  come  home, 
Sunset  flush, 
Sunset  Qit  "  Sun  dead  "), 
Fowls  come  in, 
Dusk,  twilight. 

Edge    of    rice-cooking  pan 


Mody  dm  by, 
Mcna  masoandro, 
Maty  masoandro, 
Mi'ditra  akbho, 
Somambisdmby, 
M  a  izim-bava-vild  ny, 


about   5.0  p.m. 
5-30  „ 
545  „ 


6.30 


Manokom-bary  oloiia, 
Homam-bary  blona, 
Tapi-miliinana, 
Mandry  blona, 
Tapi-niandry  blona, 
Mipba-tafbndro, 
Mamaton'  alina, 


obscure, 
People  begin  to  cook  rice, 
People  eat  rice,i 
Finished  eating. 
People  go  to  sleep, 
Every  one  in  bed. 
Gun-fire, 
Midnight, 


6.45 

7.0 

8.0 

8.30 

9.0 

9-30 


1 0.0 


12.0 


M 


This  list  is,  I  think,  a  very  interesting  one  and  shows  the 
primitive  pastoral  and  agricultural  habits  of  the  Hova  Malagasy 
before  they  were  influenced  by  European  civilisation.  Previous 
to  their  knowledge  of  clocks  and  watches  (which  are  still 
unknown  to  the  majority  of  people  away  from  the  capital),  the 
native  houses  thus  served  as  a  rude  kind  of  dial.  As,  until 
recent  times,  these  were  always  built  with  their  length  running 
north  and  south,  and  with  the  single  door  and  window  facing 
the  west,  the  sunlight  coming  in  after  mid-day  at  the  open  door 
gave,  by  its  gradual  progress  along  the  floor,  a  fairly  accurate 
measure  of  time  to  people  amongst  whom  time  was  not  of  very 
much  account.  In  the  forenoon,  the  position  of  the  sun,  nearly 
square  with  the  eastern  purlin  of  the  roof,  marked  about 
9  o'clock  ;  and  as  noon  approached  its  vertical  position,  about 
the  ridge-pole,  or  at  least  its  reaching  the  meridian,  clearly 
showed  12  o'clock.  Then,  as  the  sunlight  gradually  passed 
westward  and  began  to  peer  in  at  the  door,  at  about  i  o'clock, 
it  announced  "  the  peeping-in  of  the  day "  (initsidika  andro)  ; 
and  then,  as  successive  points  on  the  floor  were  reached  by  the 
advancing  rays,  several  of  the  hours  of  the  afternoon  were 
sufficiently  clearly  marked  off : — "  the  place  of  rice-pounding  " 
{am-pitotoavi-bary),  as  the  light  fell  on  the  rice-mortar,  further 
into  the  house  ;  "  the  calf-fastening  place  "  (am-pamatoran-jdnak' 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.       7 1 


bmby\  as  the  rays  reached  one  of  the  three  central  posts 
supporting  the  ridge,  and  where  the  calf  was  fastened  for  the 
night ;  and  then,  "  touching "  {tofapaka),  when  the  declining 
sunshine  reached  the  eastern  wall,  at  about  half-past  four  in  the 
afternoon.  Other  words  and  notes  of  time,  it  will  be  seen,  are 
derived  from  various  natural  phenomena.  There  is  a  phrase, 
jinja  dndry,  meaning  house-post  notching,"  to  denote  notches 
or  marks  cut  in  the  southern  ridge-post  to  mark  the  gradual 
advance  of  the  sun's  rays,  and  from  them  the  hours  of  the 
afternoon.  Some  other  words  for  the  divisions  of  time  used  by 
the  Malagasy  may  be  here  noted.  Thus  "  a  rice-cooking " 
{indray  inaha77iasa-bary)  is  frequently  used  to  denote  about  half 
an  hour  ;  while  "  the  frying  of  a  locust  "  {indray  mitbno  valald) 
is  a  phrase  employed  to  describe  a  moment. 

Many  words  exist  in  the  Malagasy  language  to  denote 
different  appearances  of  Nature  which  are  somewhat  poetical 
and  seem  to  show  some  imaginative  power.  Thus  the  light 
fleecy  clouds  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere  are  called 
"  sky  gossamer  "  {farora-ddnitra)  ;  the  sun  is  the  "  day's-eye  " 
iindsodndro)  ;  the  galaxy  is  the  "  dividing  of  the  year "  {efi- 
taond);  the  rainbow  is  "God's  large  knife"  {antsiben'  Andria- 
mdnitrd) ;  and  a  waterspout  is  the  "  tail  of  the  sky "  {rdmbon- 
ddnitrd). 

January  is  usually  the  wettest  month  in  the  year  in  Imerina ; 
and  in  some  years  there  occurs  what  the  Hova  call  the  hafitoana 
or  "  seven  days,"  that  is  seven  days  of  almost  continuous  rain, 
although  it  more  often  lasts  only  three  or  four  days.  Such  a 
time  is  not  only  a  most  uncomfortable  one  for  all  who  have  to 
go  about,  especially  for  the  Malagasy,  with  their  thin  cotton 
clothing ;  but  it  is  also  most  disastrous  for  the  houses,  com- 
pounds, and  boundary  walls.  The  continuous  rain  soaks  into 
these  and  brings  them  down  in  every  direction.  From  the 
steep  situation  of  the  capital,  almost  every  house  compound 
is  built  up  on  one  side  with  a  retaining-wall,  and  on  the  other 
is  cut  away  so  as  to  form  a  level  space.    These  walls  or 


72  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

"batteries,"  as  they  are  termed,  are  often  badly  constructed 
and  of  very  insufficient  strength  and  thickness ;  the  constant 
moisture  soaks  in,  and  down  come  hundreds  of  stones  and  tons 
of  earth,  blocking  up  the  narrow  paths  and  making  locomotion 
more  difficult  than  ever.  The  enclosing  walls  of  compounds 
and  gardens,  made  of  several  layers  of  the  hard  red  soil, 
are  also  apt  to  be  brought  down  in  ruin  at  such  times, 
although  it  is  wonderful  to  see  for  how  many  years  such 
structures  will  endure  the  storms  and  heavy  rains  of  successive 
seasons. 

The  prolonged  moisture  combined  with  the  heat  of  this  time 
of  the  year  naturally  makes  everything  grow  luxuriantly.  Our 
gardens  are  gay  with  flowers  ;  and  in  many  places  the  open 
downs  display  a  considerable  amount  of  floral  beauty.  I  have 
never  seen  elsewhere  so  beautiful  a  display  of  wild  flowers  as 
that  which  met  our  view  when  travelling  from  Antsirabe  in 
Vakinankaratra  to  Antananarivo  in  the  middle  of  December, 
1887.  Leaving  Antsirabe  and  proceeding  for  several  miles 
towards  the  north-east,  the  level  country  up  to  the  foot  of  the 
long  ridge  running  north  and  south,  which  is  ascended  about 
four  hours  after  leaving  Antsirabe,  was  gay  with  flowers,  which 
covered  the  downs,  and  in  places  gave  a  bright  colour  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  Among  these  the  most  prominent  was 
a  pale  pink  flower  on  stems  from  a  foot  to  eighteen  ^  inches 
high  (called  by  the  people  Kbtosay\^  and  also  the  lovely 
deep-blue  flower  called  Nifinakanga  (lit.  "  guinea-fowl's  tooth," 
see  p.  65  ante\  which  latter  occurred  abundantly  among  the 
grass. 

In  many  places,  especially  near  villages,  a  plant  with  small 
pale-blue  flowers,^  almost  exactly  like  our  English  "  forget-me- 
not,"  grew  in  dense  masses,  but  on  stems  a  foot  or  two  feet  high, 
showing  a  blue-tinted  surface  even  at  a  considerable  distance. 
The  Vonenina  (see  p.  65),  with  a  pale-pink  flower,  was  very 
frequent,  as  well  as  several  species  of  bright  yellow  flowers. 
*  Sopubia  triphylla,  Baker.  '  Various  species  of  CyiiogJossiiin. 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.  73 

Three  or  four  species  of  white-flovvered  plants,  one  of  which  was 
a  clematis,!  were  very  frequent  ;  and  here  a  few  late  examples 
of  terrestrial  orchids  were  seen. 

We  reckoned  that  there  were  from  twenty  to  thirty  different 
species  of  wild  flowers  then  in  bloom  on  these  downs  of 
Vakinankaratra,  gladdening  our  eyes  by  their  varied  beauty 
and  abundance  as  we  travelled  northwards  on  that  glorious 
morning.  As  we  got  to  the  higher  ground,  however,  I  noticed 
that  the  blue  Nifinakdnga  became  very  scarce.  The  pale-pink 
Kotosay  was  also  much  less  abundant  on  the  heights,  but  the 
white  orchids  were  still  in  flower  in  many  places.  Seven  weeks 
previously  these  upper  downs  had  been  also  gay  with  great 
masses  of  a  brilliant  crimson  flower,  a  leguminous  plant, 
probably  an  Indigofera,  which  grew  in  clusters  of  many  scores 
of  spikes  growing  close  together.  But  in  December  only  here 
and  there  was  there  a  flower  left,  and  hardly  a  seed-pod,  the 
great  majority  having  been  scattered  by  the  winds. 

Not  only  do  flowers  and  verdure  delight  our  eyes  at  this 
time  of  the  year,  but  this  is  the  season  when  the  greatest  variety 
of  fruit  comes  in.  Bananas,  pine-apples,  and  two  or  three  other 
fruits  may  be  had  all  the  year  round,  but  in  the  rainy  season 
we  also  get  grapes,  peaches,  mangoes,  plums,  quinces,  and 
oranges,  and  latterly  apples  are  also  becoming  plentiful. 

Autumn  :  March  and  April. — Generally,  both  crops  of 
rice — the  earlier  and  the  later — are  all  cut  by  the  end  of  April, 
although  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  province  harvest  is  usually 
five  or  six  weeks  after  that  date.  But  if  the  rains  are  late  and 
should  happen  to  be  scanty  in  February  and  March,  as  was  the 
case  this  year  (1894),  harvest  work  is  still  going  on  at  the  end 
of  May.  In  fact,  owing  to  there  being  these  two  crops  of  rice, 
with  no  very  exactly  marked  division  between  the  twOj  autumn, 
in  the  sense  of  rice-harvest,  is  going  on  for  about  four  months, 
and  sometimes  longer,  as  just  mentioned,  and  extends  over  the 
later  months  of  summer  as  well  as  the  two  months  of  autumn 

^  Clematis  Bojcri^  Hook, 


74  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

or  Fararano  (March  and  April).  In  January  those  portions  of 
the  great  rice-plain  which  lie  north-west  of  the  capital  become 
golden  yellow  in  hue,  and  after  a  few  days,  patches  of  water- 
covered  field  may  be  noticed  in  different  places,  showing  where 
the  crop  has  been  cut,  and  the  few  inches  of  water  in  which  it 
was  growing  show  conspicuously  in  the  prospect.  As  the  weeks 
advance,  this  water-covered  area  extends  over  larger  portions 
of  the  rice  plain,  until  the  whole  of  the  early  crop  has  been 
gathered  in,  so  that  in  many  directions  there  appear  to  be 
extensive  sheets  of  water.  I  well  remember,  when  once  at 
Ambohimanarina,  a  large  village  to  the  north-west  of  Antana- 
narivo, how  strange  it  appeared  to  see  people  setting  out  to 
cross  what  seemed  a  considerable  lake.  But  of  course  there 
was  no  danger,  as  the  water  was  only  a  few  inches  deep. 

As  there  are  channels  to  conduct  water  to  every  rice-field, 
small  canoes  are  largely  used  to  bring  the  rice,  both  before  and 
after  it  has  been  threshed,  to  the  margin  of  the  higher  grounds 
and  nearer  to  the  roads.  At  the  village  just  mentioned,  which 
is  like  a  large  island  surrounded  by  a  sea  of  rice-plain,  there  is 
one  point  where  a  number  of  these  channels  meet  and  form 
quite  a  port  ;  and  a  very  animated  scene  it  presents  at  harvest- 
time,  as  canoe  after  canoe,  piled  up  with  heaps  of  rice  in  the 
husk,  or  with  sheaves  of  it  still  unthreshed,  comes  up  to  the 
landing-place  to  discharge  its  cargo. 

In  a  few  weeks'  time  the  watery  covering  of  the  plain  is 
hidden  by  another  green  crop,  but  not  of  so  bright  and  vivid 
a  tint  as  the  fresh-planted  and  growing  rice.  This  is  the 
kblikSly  or  after-crop,  which  sprouts  from  the  roots  of  the  old 
plants.  This  is  much  shorter  in  stalk  and  smaller  in  ear  than 
the  first  crop,  and  is  often  worth  very  little  ;  but  if  the  rains  are 
late,  so  that  there  is  plenty  of  moisture,  it  sometimes  yields  a 
fair  quantity,  but  it  is  said  to  be  rather  bitter  in  taste. 

In  cutting  the  rice  the  Malagasy  use  a  straight-bladed  knife  ; 
and  as  the  work  proceeds,  the  stalks  are  laid  in  long  curving 
narrow  lines  along  the  field,  the  heads  of  one  sheaf  being 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.  75 


covered  over  by  the  cut  ends  of  the  stalks  of  the  next  sheaf. 
This  is  done  to  prevent  the  ears  drying  too  quickly  and  the 
grain  falling  out  before  it  reaches  the  threshing-floor.  This 
last-named  accessory  to  rice-culture  is  simply  a  square  or  circle 
of  the  hard  red  earth,  kept  clear  from  grass  and  weeds,  and 
plastered  with  mud,  and  generally  on  the  sloping  side  of  a  hill 
or  rising  ground  close  to  the  rice-field.  Here  the  sheaves  are 
piled  round  the  threshing-floor  like  a  low  breastwork.  No  flail 
is  used,  but  handfuls  of  rice  are  beaten  on  an  upright  stone 
fixed  in  the  ground,  until  all  the  grain  is  separated  from  the 
straw.  The  unhusked  rice  is  then  carried  in  baskets  to  the 
owner's  compound,  and  is  usually  stored  in  large  round  holes 
with  a  small  circular  opening  dug  in  the  hard  red  soil.  These 
are  lined  with  straw,  and  the  mouth  is  covered  with  a  flat  stone, 
which  is  again  covered  over  with  earth  ;  and  in  these  receptacles 
it  is  generally  kept  dry  and  uninjured  for  a  considerable  time. 
In  most  years  the  end  of  April  and  the  beginning  of  May  are 
very  busy  times  with  the  Malagasy  ;  almost  all  other  work  must 
give  way  to  the  getting  in  of  the  har\-est ;  the  fields  are  every- 
where dotted  over  with  people  reaping  ;  almost  all  slaves,  as 
well  as  the  poorer  people  we  meet  along  the  roads,  carrying  a 
considerable  load  of  freshly-cut  grain  on  their  heads,  or  a  basket 
filled  with  akbtry  or  unhusked  rice,  and  large  quantities  are 
spilt  all  along  the  roads  and  paths.  Hence  some  of  the  most 
frequented  thoroughfares,  like  the  chief  embankment  leading 
out  from  the  city  westwards,  swarm  with  rats  and  mice,  which 
must  pick  up  a  very  good  living  at  this  time  of  the  year. 
Other  animals  also  take  toll  from  the  harvest,  especially  the 
Fody,  or  Madagascar  cardinal-bird,  which  may  be  seen  some- 
times in  large  flocks,  the  bright  scarlet  plumage  of  the  cock- 
bird  making  him  a  very  conspicuous  feature  of  the  avifauna 
during  the  warmer  months.  These  birds  sometimes  do 
considerable  damage  to  the  rice-crop.  Large  quantities  of 
rice-stalks  are  now  to  be  seen  in  all  directions,  spread 
out  to  dry  in  the  sun,   and  they  are  also  placed  for  the 


76  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

same  purpose  on  the  top  of  the  clay  boundary  walls  of  the 
compounds. 

Of  late  years  it  has  become  rather  common  for  the  Christian 
congregations  to  have  a  Harvest  Thanksgiving  service  in  their 
churches.  The  church  is  often  elaborately  decorated  with  rice 
and  fruits  of  all  descriptions,  sometimes  in  fact  to  an  absurd 
extent,  so  that  the  building  looks  like  a  greengrocer's  store,  as 
indeed  may  be  occasionally  seen  even  in  churches  in  England. 
A  much  more  commendable  feature  of  these  thanksgiving 
services  is  the  bringing  of  offerings  of  rice  and  various  kinds 
of  produce  for  the  support  of  the  evangelists  and  school 
teachers. 

As  the  colder  weather  advances,  the  mornings  are  often 
foggy,  at  least  a  thick  white  mist  covers  the  plains  and  valleys 
soon  after  the  sun  rises,  and  remains  for  an  hour  or  two  until 
his  increasing  power  disperses  it.  Seen  from  the  higher 
grounds,  and  from  the  most  elevated  parts  of  the  capital,  this 
mist  often  presents  a  very  beautiful  appearance :  a  billowy 
white  sea  of  vapour  is  brilliantly  lit  up  by  the  sunlight,  and 
out  of  this  sea  the  hill-tops  rise  up  like  islands.  But  these  misty 
mornings  also  reveal  many  things  which  can  only  be  seen  by 
very  close  observation,  in  clear  sunshine,  especially  the  webs 
of  various  species  of  spider.  Many  kinds  of  bush  are  seen  to 
be  almost  covered  by  geometrical  webs  :  one  species  seems  to 
choose  the  extremities  of  the  branches  of  the  Sbngosongo,^  but 
the  most  common  is  a  web  averaging  five  or  six  inches  in 
diameter,  vhich  is  spread  horizontally  on  tufts  of  grass,  and 
may  be  seen  by  thousands,  half  a  dozen  or  so  in  a  square  yard. 

The  aspect  of  vegetation,  except  in  the  rice-fields,  can 
hardly  be  said  to  change  much  during  the  autumn  months. 
A  plant  with  pale  yellow  flowers  2  may  be  noticed  by  thousands 
in  marshy  grounds,  giving  quite  a  mass  of  colour  in  many 
places.  A  significant  name  given  to  autumn  is  Menahitra^  i.e.^ 
*^  the  grass  is  red,"  that  is,  turning  brown. 

'  Euphorbia  splciuiciis,  Bojer.  Grangca  uiadcraspatann,  Poir. 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.  77 

Winter:  May,  June,  July,  and  August. — We  have 
no  snow,  nor  is  there  any  native  word  for  it,  for  even  the 
highest  peaks  of  Ankaratra  are  too  low  for  snow  to  fall  on 
them  ;  we  never  see  ice  (although  adventurous  foreigners  have 
once  or  twice  seen  a  thin  film  of  it  on  pools  on  the  highest 
hillsides)  ;  hoar-frost,  however,  is  not  uncommon,  and  occasion- 
ally the  leaves  of  some  species  of  vegetables,  as  well  as  those 
of  the  banana,  turn  black  with  the  keen  night  air.  And  since 
there  is  no  rain  during  our  Imerina  winter,  the  paths  are  dry, 
and  it  is  the  best  time  for  making  long  journeys,  especially  as 
there  is  little  to  be  feared  from  fever.  Winter  is  therefore  a 
pleasant  time ;  the  skies  are  generally  clear,  the  air  is  fresh  and 
invigorating,  and  to  the  cool  and  bracing  temperature  of  the 
winter  months  is  doubtless  largely  due  the  health  and  strength 
which  many  Europeans  enjoy  for  years  together  in  the  central 
provinces  of  Madagascar. 

The  long  period  without  rain  at  this  season  naturally  dries 
up  the  grass,  and  the  hills  and  downs  become  parched  and 
brown.  Maintany,  i.e.,  "  the  earth  is  dry,"  is  one  of  the  native 
names  for  this  season,  and  it  is  very  appropriate  to  the  con- 
dition of  things  in  general.^  The  rice-fields  lie  fallow,  affording 
a  scanty  supply  of  grass  for  the  cattle  ;  and  many  short  cuts 
can  be  made  across  them  in  various  directions,  for  the  beaten 
track  over  embankments,  great  and  small,  may  be  safely  left 
for  the  dry  and  level  plain. 

The  winter  months  are  a  favourite  time  for  the  native 
custom  of famadihana,  that  is,  of  wrapping  the  corpses  of  their 
deceased  relatives  in  fresh  silk  cloths,  as  well  as  removing  some 
of  them  to  a  new  tomb  as  soon  as  this  is  finished.  These  are  quite 
holiday  occasions  and  times  of  feasting,  and,  not  unfrequently, 
of  much  that  is  evil  in  the  way  of  drinking  and  licentiousness. 

Another  very  prominent  feature  of  the  social  life  of  the 
Hova  Malagasy  is  the  system  of  holding  large  open-air  markets 

^  Another  curious  native  name  for  the  end  of  the  dry  season  is  MaJiaronx 
vaiy  antitra,  i.e.,  "  making  the  old  women  spit  "  ! 


78  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

all  over  the  central  province  on  the  various  days  of  the  week. 
The  largest  of  these  is  that  held  in  the  capital  every  Friday 
(Zoma),  at  which  probably  10,000  people  are  densely  crowded 
together,  and  where  almost  everything  that  is  grown  or  manu- 
factured in  the  province  can  be  purchased.  But  two  or  three 
of  the  other  markets  held  within  four  or  five  miles  of  Anta- 
nanarivo do  not  fall  far  short  of  the  Zoma  market  in  size, 
especially  those  at  Asabotsy  (Saturday)  to  the  north,  and  at 
Alatsinainy  (Monday)  to  the  north-east.  To  a  stranger  these 
great  markets  present  a  very  novel  and  interesting  scene,  and 
a  good  idea  may  be  obtained  as  to  what  can  be  purchased  here 
by  taking  a  stroll  through  their  crowded  alleys  and  noticing 
what  is  offered  for  sale.  The  market  is  roughly  divided  into 
sections,  according  to  the  kind  of  goods  sold.  In  one  part 
are  oxen  and  sheep,  many  of  which  are  killed  in  the  morning, 
while  the  meat  is  cut  up  and  sold  during  the  day.  Here  are 
turkeys,  geese,  ducks,  and  fowls  by  the  hundred  ;  here  are  great 
heaps  of  rice,  both  in  the  husk  and  either  partially  cleaned,  as 
"  red  rice,"  or  perfectly  so,  as  "  white  rice "  ;  here  are  piles  of 
grey  locusts,  heaps  of  minute  red  shrimps,  and  baskets  of  snails, 
all  used  as  "  relishes  "  for  the  rice  ;  here  is  mdngahdzo  or  manioc 
root,  both  cooked  and  raw,  as  well  as  sweet-potatoes,  earth-nuts, 
arum  roots  (saonjo)^  and  other  vegetables.  In  another  quarter 
are  the  stalls  for  cottons  and  prints.  American  sheetings  and 
Lancashire  calicoes,  as  well  as  native-made  cloths  of  hemp^ 
rofia  palm  fibre,  cotton,  and  silk  ;  and  not  far  away  are 
basketfuls  and  piles  of  snowy  cocoons  of  native  silk  for  weaving. 
Here  is  the  ironmongery  section,  where  good  native-made  nails, 
rough  hinges,  and  locks  and  bolts  can  be  bought ;  and  near 
them  are  the  sellers  of  the  neat  little  scales  of  brass  or  iron, 
with  their  weights  for  weighing  the  "  cut  money "  which  forms 
the  small  change  of  the  Malagasy.  There  we  come  to  the 
vendors  of  the  strong  and  cheap  native  mats  and  baskets, 
made  from  the  tough  peel  of  the  Zozoro  papyrus,^  and  from 
^  Cyf>crus  imerinensis,  Boeckl. 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.  79 


various  kinds  of  grass,  often  with  graceful  interwoven  patterns. 
Yonder  a  small  forest  of  upright  pieces  of  wood  points  out 
the  timber  market,  where  beams  and  rafters,  joists  and  flooring 
boards  can  be  purchased,  as  well  as  strong  bedsteads  and  doors. 
Not  far  distant  from  this  is  the  place  where  large  bundles  of 
Herana  sedge,^  arranged  in  sheets  or  "  leaves,"  as  the  Malagasy 
call  them,  for  roofing,  can  be  bought ;  and  near  these  again  are 
the  globular  water-pots,  or  siny,  for  fetching  and  for  storing 
water.  But  it  would  occupy  too  much  time  and  space  to 
enumerate  all  the  articles  for  sale  in  an  Imerina  market.  It 
is  greatly  to  be  lamented  that  native  rum  is  now  largely  sold 
at  many  markets,  in  bottles,  gourds,  and  in  big  earthen  pots  ; 
and  it  must  be  added  that  at  the  Antananarivo  market  slaves 
are  also  exposed  for  sale.  This  is  done  in  rather  a  quiet  corner 
of  the  market,  as  if  the  people  were  a  little  ashamed  of  it. 

Perhaps  the  star-lit  skies  of  the  evenings  of  the  summer 
months  are  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  year.  At  this  season 
some  of  the  finest  of  the  northern  constellations  are  seen  at 
the  same  time  as  several  of  the  southerly  ones.  The  Great 
Bear  stretches  over  the  northern  sky  ;  higher  up  is  the  Northern 
Crown  ;  the  Pleiades,^  and  Orion  ^  with  his  many  brilliant 
neighbours,  are  overhead  ;  the  Southern  Cross,  with  its  con- 
spicuous "  pointers "  in  the  Centaur,  is  high  in  the  southern 
heavens  ;  and  the  Magellan  Clouds  are  clearly  seen  nearer  the 
horizon  ;  and  all  across  the  firmament  is  the  Galaxy,  or,  as  the 
Malagasy  call  it,  the  efi-tao7ia,  "  the  division,"  or  "  separation  of 
the  year."  And  then,  as  the  circling  year  revolves,  the  great 
serpentine  curve  of  Scorpio  appears,  and  Sirius,  Capella, 
Canopus,  and  many  another  glorious  lamp  of  heaven  light  up 
the  midnight  sky.     Imerina  is   certainly  a   very  favourable 

^  Cyfcnis  latifoliiis^  Poir. 

=  Curiously  enough,  the  Malagasy  appear  to  have  given  names  only  to  these 
two  prominent  clusters  of  stars.  The  Pleiades  they  call  KofokcH-iuiadi-laona, 
i.e.,  "  Little  boys  fighting  over  the  rice  mortar  "  ;  while  the  three  stars  of  Orion's 
belt  they  call  Tclo-no-ho-rcfy,  i.e.,  "  Three  make  a  fathom."  They  have  no 
name  for  the  first-magnitude  stars,  or  for  the  planets,  except  for  Venus,  as  a 
morning  star,  viz.,  Fitarikandro,  i.e.,  "  Leader  of  the  day." 


80  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

country  for  astronomical  observation,  and  good  work  may  be 
expected  from  the  Observatory  established  five  years  ago  by 
the  Jesuit  Mission. 

The  month  of  August,  the  closing  one  in  this  review  of  the 
year,  is  often  the  coldest  month  of  all,  cold,  that  is,  for  a  country 
within  the  tropics.  All  through  August  the  keen  south-eastern 
trades  generally  blow  strong,  and  although  in  sheltered  places 
the  afternoon  sun  may  be  quite  warm,  the  mornings  and 
evenings  are  very  cold,  and  during  the  night  the  mercury  will 
often  descend  to  very  near  the  freezing  point.  The  mornings 
are  frequently  misty  ;  on  some  days  there  are  constant  showers 
of  erika  or  drizzly  rain,  alternating  with  bright  sunny  days  and 
clear  skies  ;  these  latter  seem  the  very  perfection  of  weather, 
bracing  and  health-giving.  But  this  cold  weather  often  brings 
malarial  fever,  which  attacks  great  numbers  of  Malagasy,  and 
also  brings  affections  of  the  throat  and  chest,  to  which  many 
fall  victims.  At  such  times  their  thin  cotton  clothing  seems  ill 
adapted  for  protection  against  the  climate.  This  circumstance 
has  often  struck  me  as  showing  how  difficult  it  is  to  change  the 
habits  of  a  people  ;  for  centuries  past  the  Hova  have  lived  in 
this  cool  highland  region,  yet,  until  very  lately,  few  of  them 
have  made  any  change  in  their  dress,  which  was  well  enough 
adapted  for  the  purely  tropical  region  from  which  they  origin- 
ally came,  but  quite  unfitted  for  the  keen  cool  air  of  the  winter 
months  in  a  country  nearly  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  great  rice-plain  to  the  west  of  the  capital  and  all  the 
broader  valleys  still  lie  fallow,  although  in  various  places  exten- 
sive sheets  of  water  show  that  irrigation  is  commencing.  Many 
of  the  fields  are  now  being  dug  up,  and  water  is  allowed  to  flow 
over  them  to  prepare  the  soil  for  planting.  In  the  lesser  valleys 
and  at  the  edges  of  the  larger  rice-plains  the  landscape  is  en- 
livened by  the  bright  green  of  the  ketsa  grounds,  the  smaller 
rice-fields  or  nurseries,  where,  as  already  described,  the  rice  is 
sown  broadcast  before  transplanting  into  the  larger  fields. 

There  are  not  many  deciduous  trees  in  Imerina,  so  the 


THE  CHANGING  YEAR  IN  CENTRAL  MADAGASCAR.       8 1 


numerous  orchards,  chiefly  of  mangoes,  look  green  throughout 
the  year.  Several  prominent  trees,  however,  do  cast  their 
leaves,  notably  the  Avidz^^,^  the  Cape-lilac,^  and  the  Vbanonoka,^ 
a  large  tree  very  like  an  oak.  But  the  Cape-lilac  is  beginning 
to  put  out  its  green  buds ;  the  peach-trees  are  a  mass  of 
blossom,  and  the  Sbngosbngo  3  in  the  hedges  is  beginning  to 
show  its  brilliant  scarlet  or  pale  yellow  bracts.  Wild  flowers 
are  still  scarce,  but  the  lilac  flowers  of  the  Sevabe  4  bloom  all 
through  the  year.  The  golden-orange  panicles  of  the  SevaS 
now  come  into  bloom.  Nature  is  arousing  from  the  inaction  of 
the  cold  season,  and  the  few  trees  now  flowering  give  promise  of 
the  coming  spring  and  summer. 

Towards  the  end  of  this  month  the  people  begin  to  burn  the 
dry  and  withered  grass  on  the  hillsides,  as  previously  described. 
This  time  of  the  year  is  that  during  which,  as  well  as  in 
the  earlier  months  of  the  cold  season,  the  Malagasy  are  busy 
with  house  building  and  house  repairing.  Many  of  their  houses 
are  still  built  of  the  hard  red  clay  which  covers  most  of  the 
country,  although  sun-dried  brick  is  rapidly  superseding  this  ; 
and  now  is  the  time  when  both  clay  and  bricks  can  be  made  as 
well  as  built  into  houses.  There  being  no  heavy  rain,  there  is 
no  risk  of  the  work  being  injured  if  finished  before  the  rainy 
season  comes  on. 

But  it  is  time  that  I  conclude  these  sketches  of  Imerina,  and 

of  the  varied  aspects  of  Nature,  as  well  as  of  some  of  the  social 

aspects  of  the  people,  which  may  be  observed  throughout  the 

year.    Much  more  might  be  recorded,  but  what  has  been  now 

noted  down  must  suffice.    My  principal  object  in  writing  this 

chapter  has  been  to  endeavour  to  give,  if  possible,  to  people  in 

England  some  clear  notion  of  that  part  of  the  country  where 

we  live,  and  of  the  climate  and  conditions  surrounding  us  here 

as  well  as  some  aspects  of  the  social  life  of  the  people  amongst 

whom  we  work  day  by  day. 

'  See  pp.  54,  58,  auk.         -  Ficus  Mcllcri,  Baker.         3  Sec  p.  76. 
4  Solanuin  auriculahim,  Ait.  s  Biiddleia  inadagascaricnsis.  Lam. 

7 


CHAPTER  V. 


THE  CRATER  LAKE  OF  TRITRIVA  :  ITS  PHYSICAL  FEA- 
TURES AND  LEGENDARY  HISTORY;  AND  THE  VOL- 
CANIC REGIONS  OF  THE  INTERIOR. 

Ancient  volcanoes  of  Central  Madagascar — Hot  springs — Fossil  remains  in  lime- 
stone deposits — Crater-lake  of  Andraikiba — Tritriva  Lake — Colour  of  water 
— Remarkable  appearance  of  lake — Legends — Mythical  monsters — Depth  of 
lake — View  from  crater  walls — ^Ir.  Baron  on  volcanic  phenomena — Ankara- 
tra  IMountain — Ancient  craters — Lava  streams — Volcanic  rocks — Recent 
character  of  volcanic  action. 

MADAGASCAR  is  not  at  present  one  of  those  regions 
of  the  earth  where  volcanic  disturbances  occur  ;  but 
there  is  ample  evidence,  from  the  numerous  extinct  craters 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  island,  that  at  a  very  recent  period, 
geologically  considered — possibly  even  within  the  occupation 
of  the  country  by  its  present  inhabitants — it  was  the  theatre 
of  very  extensive  outbursts  of  subterranean  energ>'.  The  whole 
island  has  not  yet  been  examined  with  sufficient  minuteness  to 
determine  the  exact  extent  of  these  old  volcanoes,  but  they 
have  been  observed  from  near  the  south-east  coast  in  S.  Lat.  23° 
and  in  various  parts  of  the  centre  of  the  island  up  to  the  north- 
west and  extreme  north,  a  distance  of  680  miles  ;  and  probably 
a  more  careful  survey  would  reveal  other  links  connecting  more 
closely  what  is  at  present  known  as  only  a  series  of  isolated 
groups  of  extinct  craters.  In  the  central  provinces  of  Mada- 
gascar there  are  two  large  clusters  of  old  volcanic  cones  and 

vents  ;  one  of  them  in  and  about  the  same  latitude  as  the 

82 


THE  CRATER  LAKE  OF  TRITRIVA.  83 

capital  (190  S.),  but  from  fifty  to  seventy  miles  away  to  the  west 
of  it,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  Itasy ;  the  other  in  the 
district  called  Vakinankaratra,  situated  about  eighty  miles  to 
the  S.S.W.  of  Antananarivo,  and  south-west  of  the  great  central 
mountain  mass  of  Ankaratra. 

This  second  volcanic  region  stretches  from  twenty  to  thirty 
miles  from  Antsirabe  away  west  to  Betafo  and  beyond  it,  and 
contains  numerous  and  prominent  extinct  craters,  such  as  Ivoko, 
latsifitra,  Vohitra,  Tritriva,  and  many  others,  some  of  which 
have  been  described  by  the  graphic  pen  of  the  late  Dr.  Mullens, 
in  his  Twelve  Months  in  Madagascar  (pp.  214-219).  The 
doctor  says  that  he  counted  in  this  southern  group  about  sixty 
cones  and  craters. 

There  are  also  many  hot  springs  in  this  Vakinankaratra 
region,  the  most  noted  of  which  are  those  at  Antsirabe.  At 
this  place  one  of  the  chief  springs  is  largely  charged  with  lime, 
which  has  formed  an  extensive  deposit  all  over  a  small  level 
valley  sunk  some  20  feet  below  the  general  level  of  the  plain 
around  the  village.  For  a  long  time  past  this  place  has 
furnished  almost  all  the  lime  used  for  building  in  the  capital, 
and  the  central  province  of  Imerina.  Besides  the  deposit  over 
the  floor  of  the  valley,  there  is  also  a  compact  ridge-shaped  mass 
of  lime  accretion,  70  feet  long  by  18  to  20  feet  wide,  and  about 
15  to  16  feet  high.  This  has  all  been  deposited  by  the  spring 
which  kept  open  a  passage  through  the  lime  to  the  top.  Within 
the  last  ten  or  twelve  years,  however,  the  spring  has  been  tapped 
by  a  shaft,  of  no  great  depth,  a  few  yards  to  the  north,  over 
which  a  large  and  commodious  bath-house  has  been  erected 
by  the  Norwegian  Lutheran  Mission  ;  and  here  many  visitors 
come  to  bathe  in  the  hot  mineral  water,  which  has  been  found 
very  beneficial  in  rheumatic  and  other  complaints.  A  little 
distance  to  the  south-west  is  another  spring,  not,  however,  hot, 
but  only  milk-warm,  the  water  of  which  is  drunk  by  those  who 
bathe  in  the  other  spring.  This  water  has  been  shown  to  be, 
in  chemical  constituents,  almost  identical  with  the  famous  Vichy 


84  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

water  of  France.  All  over  the  valley  the  water  oozes  up  in 
v^arious  places  ;  and  about  half  a  mile  farther  north  are  several 
other  springs,  somewhat  hotter  than  that  just  described,  to 
which  the  natives  largely  resort  for  curative  bathing. 

During  the  excavations  for  the  foundations  of  the  bath- 
house, the  skeletons  of  several  examples  of  an  extinct  species 
of  hippopotamus  were  discovered,  the  crania  and  tusks  being 
in  very  perfect  preservation.  Some  of  these  are  now  in  the 
Museum  at  Berlin  ;  the  finest  specimen  was  sent  to  the  Museum 
of  the  University  of  Christiania  in  Norway.  This  Madagascar 
hippopotamus  was  a  smaller  species  than  that  now  living  in 
Africa,  and  is  probably  nearly  allied  to,  if  not  identical  with, 
another  hippopotamus  {^H.  Lemerlei),  of  which  remains  were 
found  in  1868  by  M.  Grandidier,  in  the  plains  of  the  south-west 
coast.  I  was  informed  by  the  people  that,  wherever  in  these 
valleys  the  black  mud  is  dug  into  for  a  depth  of  three  or  four 
feet,  bones  are  sure  to  be  met  with.  Probably  a  series  of 
excavations  would  reveal  the  remains  of  animals,  birds,  and 
repiiles  formerly  inhabiting  Madagascar.  From  the  internal 
structure  of  the  teeth  and  bones  of  the  hippopotami  discovered 
at  Antsirabe,  traces  of  the  gelatine  being  still  visible,  it  is 
evident  that  the  animals  had  been  living  at  a  comparatively 
recent  period.  There  have  been  occasional  vague  reports  of 
the  existence  of  some  large  animal  in  the  southern  parts  of  the 
island  ;  possibly  the  hippopotamus  is  not  yet  absolutely  extinct 
there  ;  and  perhaps  the  half-mythical  stories  of  the  Songoinhy, 
Tokandla,  Lalomena^  and  other  strange  creatures  current  among 
the  Malagasy  are  traditions  of  the  period  when  these  huge 
pachyderms  were  still  to  be  seen  in  the  lakes  and  streams  and 
marshes  of  Madagascar. 

Within  a  few  miles  of  Antsirabe  are  two  crater  lakes.  The 
nearer  and  larger  of  these  is  called  Andraikiba,  which  lies 
distant  about  four  miles  due  west.  This  is  a  beautiful  sheet 
of  water,  blue  as  the  heavens  in  colour,  in  shape  an  irregular 
square,  but  curving  round  to  the  north-west,  where  it  shallows 


THE  CRATER  LAKE  OF  TRITRIVA.  85 

into  a  marsh,  which  is  finally  absorbed  in  rice-fields.  The  lake 
is  said  to  be  of  profound  depth,  but  the  hills  surrounding  it  are 
not  very  lofty,  rising  only  about  200  feet  above  the  surface  of 
the  water,  from  which  they  rise  steeply.  Fish  and  water-fowl 
and  crocodiles  also  are  said  to  be  very  abundant  in  and  on  its 
waters. 

But  the  most  interesting  natural  curiosity  to  be  seen  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Antsirabe  is  the  crater-lake  of  Tritriva.  This 
is  situated  about  ten  miles  to  the  south-west,  and  is  a  pleasant 
ride  of  two  hours  by  palanquin.  Travelling  at  first  in  a  westerly 
direction,  the  road  then  turns  more  to  the  south-west,  and  skirts 
the  southern  foot  of  the  old  volcano  of  Vohitra  (already  men- 
tioned). Passing  some  mile  or  two  south  of  the  high  ground 
round  the  southern  shores  of  the  Andraikiba  lake,  the  road 
gradually  ascends  to  a  higher  level  of  country,  so  that  in  about 
an  hour  and  a  half  s  time  we  are  about  as  high  as  the  top  of 
Vohitra — probably  about  500  feet.  Reaching  a  ridge  between 
two  prominent  hills,  we  catch  our  first  sight  of  Tritriva,  now 
about  two  or  three  miles  distant  in  front  of  us.  From  this  point 
it  shows  very  distinctly  as  an  oval-shaped  hill,  its  longest  axis 
lying  north  and  south,  and  with  a  great  depression  in  its  centre  ; 
the  north-eastern  edge  of  the  crater  wall  being  the  lowest  part 
of  it,  from  which  point  it  rises  gradually  southwards  and  west- 
wards, the  western  edge  being,  at  the  centre,  from  two  to  three 
I  times  the  height  of  the  eastern  side.  To  the  north  are  two 
much  smaller  cup-like  hills,  looking  as  if  the  volcanic  forces, 
after  the  main  crater  had  been  formed,  had  become  weaker  and 
so  been  unable  to  discharge  any  longer  by  the  old  vent,  and 
had  therefore  formed  two  newer  outlets  at  a  lower  level. 

Descending  a  little  from  the  ridge  just  mentioned,  we  cross 
a  valley  with  a  good  many  scattered  hamlets,  and  in  less  than 
half  an  hour  reach  the  foot  of  the  hill.  A  few  minutes'  pull  up 
a  tolerably  easy  slope,  perhaps  200  feet  in  height,  brings  us  to 
the  top,  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  crater  edge  ;  and  on  reaching 
the  ridge  the  crater  of  the  old  volcano  and  its  lake  is  before  us, 


86  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

or,  rather,  below  us.  It  is  certainly  an  extraordinary  scene,  and 
unique  of  its  kind.  The  inner  sides  of  the  crater  dip  down  very 
steeply  on  all  sides  to  a  deep  gulf,  and  here,  sharply  defined 
by  perpendicular  cliffs  all  round  it,  except  just  at  the  southern 
point,  is  a  rather  weird-looking  dark  green  lake  far  below  us, 
the  water  surface  being  probably  from  200  to  300  feet  lower 
than  the  point  we  are  standing  upon,  and  consequently  below 
the  level  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  lake,  exactly  shut 
in  by  the  cliffs  of  the  crater  surrounding  it,  is  not  blue  in  colour, 
like  Andraikiba,  although  under  a  bright  and  cloudless  sky,  but 
a  deep  and  somewhat  blackish  green.  It  is  undoubtedly  an 
old  volcano  we  are  now  looking  down  into  ;  the  spot  on  which 
we  rest  is  only  a  few  feet  in  breadth,  and  we  can  see  that  this 
narrow  knife-edge  is  the  same  all  round  the  crater.  Outside 
of  it  the  slope  is  pretty  easy,  but  inside  it  descends  steeply,  here 
and  there  precipitously,  to  the  edge  of  the  cliffs  which  so  sharply 
define  the  actual  vent  and,  as  distinctly,  the  lake  which  they 
enclose.  Looking  southwards,  the  crater  edge  gradually 
ascends,  winding  round  the  southern  side,  and  still  ascending 
as  the  eye  follows  it  to  the  western,  the  opposite  side,  where 
the  crater  wall  towers  steeply  up  from  200  to  300  feet  higher 
than  it  does  on  the  east,  where  we  are  standing.  The  lake  we 
judge  to  be  about  800  to  900  feet  long  and  200  to  250  feet  wide, 
forming  a  long  oval,  with  pointed  ends.  The  cliffs  which 
enclose  it  appear  to  be  from  40  to  50  feet  in  height,  whitish  in 
colour,  but  with  black  streaks  where  the  rain,  charged  with 
carbonic  acid,  has  poured  more  plentifully  down  their  faces. 
These  cliffs  are  vertical  and  in  some  places  overhang  the  water, 
and  from  their  apparently  horizontal  stratification  are  no  doubt 
of  gneiss  rock.  In  coming  up  the  hill  I  noticed  a  few  small 
lumps  of  gneiss  among  the  basaltic  lava  pebbles.  The  strongest 
feature  of  this  Tritriva  is  the  sharply  defined  vertical  opening 
of  the  vent,  looking  as  if  the  rocks  had  been  cut  clean  through 
with  an  enormous  chisel,  and  as  if  they  must  dip  down — as  is 
doubtless  the  case — to  unknown  depths  below  the  dusky -green 


THE  CRATER  LAKE  OF  TRITrIvA.  8/ 

waters.  At  the  northern  end  of  the  lake  is  a  deep  gorge  or 
cleft,  partly  filled  with  bushes  and  other  vegetation.  Southward 
of  this,  on  the  eastern  side,  the  cliffs  are  still  lofty  and  overhang 
the  water,  but  at  about  a  third  of  the  lake's  length  they  gradually 
decrease  in  height,  and  at  the  southern  point  they  dip  down  to 
the  level  of  the  lake,  so  that  at  that  part  only  can  the  water 
be  approached.  On  the  western  side  the  cliffs  keep  a  pretty 
uniform  height  all  along  the  whole  length. 

So  steep  is  the  inward  slope  of  the  crater  walls,  that  we  all 
experienced  a  somewhat  "  eerie "  feeling  in  walking  along  the 
footpath  at  its  edge  ;  for  at  a  very  few  feet  from  this  a  false 
step  would  set  one  rolling  downwards,  with  nothing  to  break 
the  descent  to  the  edge  of  the  cliffs,  and  then  to  the  dark 
waters  below.  We  proceeded  southwards  along  the  crater  edge 
to  the  higher  part  at  the  south-east,  where  the  view  is  equally 
striking,  and  the  depth  of  the  great  chasm  seems  still  more 
profound.  Here  we  waited  some  time,  while  most  of  our  men 
went  down  to  one  of  the  hamlets  in  the  plain  to  the  east  to 
get  their  meal,  in  which  quest,  however,  they  had  only  poor 
success.  On  expressing  a  wish  to  taste  the  Tritriva  water,  one 
of  our  bearers  took  a  glass,  and  descending  by  a  breakneck 
path,  went  to  fetch  some  water  from  the  lake.  He  was  so  long 
away  that  we  were  beginning  to  feel  uneasy,  but  after  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  he  reappeared  with  the  water,  which  tasted  perfectly 
sweet  and  good.  He  also  entertained  us  with  some  of  the 
legends  which  were  certain  to  have  grown  up  about  so  weird- 
looking  a  place  as  Tritriva.  Pointing  to  two  or  three  small 
trees  or  bushes  growing  on  the  face  of  the  cliffs  near  the  northern 
point  of  the  lake,  he  told  us  these  were  really  a  young  lad  and 
lass  who  had  become  attached  to  each  other  ;  but  the  hard- 
hearted parents  of  the  girl  disapproving  of  the  match,  the  youth 
took  his  loin-cloth,  and  binding  it  round  his  sweetheart  and  his 
own  body,  precipitated  her  with  himself  into  the  dark  waters. 
They  became,  so  it  is  said,  two  trees  growing  side  by  side,  and 
they  now  have  offspring,  for  a  young  tree  is  growing  near  them ; 


88  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

and  in  proof  of  the  truth  of  this  story,  he  said  that  if  you  pinch 
or  break  the  branches  of  these  trees,  it  is  not  sap  which  exudes, 
but  blood.  He  appeared  to  beheve  firmly  in  the  truth  of  this 
story. 

He  also  told  us  that  the  people  of  a  clan  called  Zanatsara, 
who  live  in  the  neighbourhood,  claim  some  special  rights  in  the 
Tritriva  lake  ;  and  when  any  one  of  their  number  is  ill,  they 
send  to  see  if  the  usually  clear  dark  green  of  the  water  is 
becoming  brown  and  turbid.  If  this  is  the  case  they  believe  it 
to  be  a  presage  of  death  to  the  sick  person. 

Another  legend  makes  the  lake  the  former  home  of  one  of 
the  mythical  monsters  of  Malagasy  folk-lore,  the  Fananim-pito- 
Ibha^  or  "  seven-headed  serpent."  But  for  some  reason  or  other 
he  grew  tired  of  his  residence,  and  shifted  his  quarters  to  the 
more  spacious  and  brighter  lodgings  for  seven-headed  creatures 
afforded  by  the  other  volcanic  lake  of  Andraikiba. 

This  same  bearer  assured  us  that  in  the  rainy  season — 
contrary  to  what  one  would  have  supposed — the  water  of  the 
lake  diminishes,  but  increases  again  in  the  dry  season.  He 
told  us  that  there  is  an  outlet  to  the  water,  which  forms  a  spring 
to  the  north  of  the  mountain.  I  noticed  a  white  line  a  foot 
or  two  above  the  surface  of  the  water  all  round  the  foot  of  the 
cliffs,  showing  a  probably  higher  level  than  at  the  time  of  our 
visit. 

Walking  round  to  the  southern  end  of  the  crater  edge,  I 
proceeded  up  the  far  higher  saddle-back  ridge  on  the  western 
side.  Here  the  lake  seems  much  diminished  in  size,  and  lying 
far  down  at  an  awful  depth.  But  a  magnificent  and  extensive 
view  is  gained  of  the  surrounding  country ;  the  long  flat-topped 
lines  of  hill  to  the  east  running  many  miles  north  and  south, 
and  surrounded  directly  east  by  two  perfect  cones  (old 
volcanoes,  Votovorona  and  Ihankiana) ;  the  peaked  and  jagged 
range  of  Voamborona  to  the  south-east ;  the  enormous  mass 
of  Ibity  to  the  south  ;  and  then  west,  a  flat  region  broken  by 
abrupt  hills  ;  to  the  north-west  are  the  thickly  populated  valleys 


THE  CRATER  LAKE  OF  TRITRIVA. 


89 


towards  Betafo,  with  many  a  cup-shaped  hill  and  mountain 
marking  old  volcanic  vents  ;  and  beyond  this  a  high  mass  of 
country,  with  serrated  outline  against  the  sky,  showing  the 
district  of  Vavavato  and  the  peaks  of  lavohaika  ;  and  finally, 
coming  to  due  north  is  the  varied  grouping  of  the  hills  which 
form  the  northern  termination  of  the  central  mountain  mass 
of  Ankaratra.  Between  us  and  these  again  is  the  extensive 
plain  of  Antsirabe,  with  the  white  walls  and  gables  of  the 
church  and  the  mission  buildings  plainly  visible  in  the  bright 
sunshine,  although  ten  or  eleven  miles  distant — altogether  a 
panorama  long  to  be  remembered.  From  this  point  also  the 
significance  and  appropriateness  of  the  name  given  to  the  old 
volcano  is  clearly  seen  :  Tritriva  is  a  combination  of  the  words 
triUy,  a  word  used  to  describe  the  ridge  on  the  back  of  a 
chameleon  or  a  fish,  and  iva,  low,  deep  ;  so  that  the  name  very 
happily  describes  the  long  steep  western  ridge  or  crater  wall, 
and  the  deep  chasm  sweeping  down  from  it 

It  may  be  added  in  conclusion,  that  the  slopes  of  the  crater 
both  inside  and  out  are  covered  over  with  turf,  which  grows  on 
a  dark  brown  volcanic  soil,  mingled  with  rounded  pebbles  of 
greenish  or  purple  lava,  very  compact  and  close  in  structure, 
and  containing  minute  crystals  scattered  sparingly  through  it. 
Occasional  blocks  of  this  are  found  round  the  edge  of  the  crater 
wall,  and  the  same  rock  crops  out  at  many  places  on  the  steep 
inner  slopes.  I  did  not  notice  any  vesicular  lava  or  scoria  ;  and 
at  a  little  homestead  not  far  from  the  north-eastern  foot  of 
Tritriva,  I  was  surprised  to  find  the  hady  or  fosse  dug  to  12  or 
14  feet  deep  almost  entirely  through  the  red  clay  found  all 
through  the  central  regions  of  the  island.  The  dark  brown 
volcanic  soil,  here  seen  in  section,  appeared  to  be  only  18  inches 
deep,  with  layers  of  small  pebbles.  So  that  the  discharge  of 
the  volcanic  dust  and  ash  appears  to  have  extended  only  a 
short  distance  from  the  mountain,  at  least  it  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  very  deep,  unless,  indeed,  there  has  been  much 
denudation.    It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  this  point 


90  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

is  to  the  windward  side  of  the  hill ;  probably  the  volcanic  soil 
is  deeper  to  the  west  of  it.  The  much  greater  height  of  the 
western  wall  of  the  crater  is  no  doubt  due  to  the  prevailing 
easterly  winds  carrying  the  bulk  of  the  ejected  matter  to  the 
west,  and  piling  it  up  to  two  or  three  times  the  height  of  the 
eastern  side.  After  seeing  the  amount  of  gneiss  rock  which 
must  have  been  blown  out  of  the  vent,  I  expected  to  have  found 
much  greater  quantities  of  it,  and  in  larger  blocks,  than  the  very 
few  and  small  fragments  actually  seen  on  the  outer  slopes.  The 
greater  portion,  however,  is  probably  covered  up  under  the 
quantities  of  volcanic  dust  and  lapilli  which  were  subsequently 
ejected. 

The  Rev.  Johannes  Johnson,  of  the  Norwegian  Missionary 
Society,  says  :  "  It  will  interest  you  to  hear  that  the  depth  of 
the  Volcanic  Lake  of  Tritriva  has  been  measured.  Here  is  a 
rough  diagram  showing  the  places  where  soundings  were  made, 
S<  I  ^  ~>  N.  At  I  it  was  found  to  be  328  feet  deep,  at  2  it 
was  443  feet,  and  at  3  it  was  474  feet  in  depth.  The  natives 
expected  it  would  prove  to  be  much  deeper  than  this."  Thus  it 
appears  that  although  not,  as  popularly  supposed,  unfathomable, 
the  depth  of  this  remarkable  sheet  of  water  is  still  very  consider- 
able for  its  small  area,  and  is  quite  sufficiently  profound  to  have 
given  rise  to  the  many  weird  legends  connected  with  it  in  the 
popular  imagination. 

The  two  best  known  volcanic  regions  of  Central  Madagascar 
have  already  been  referred  to  in  this  chapter,  and  as  some  of  the 
readers  of  these  pages  may  like  to  have  fuller  information  as 
to  these  interesting  parts  of  the  country,  I  will  not  attempt  to 
describe  them  myself,  but  will  quote  half  a  dozen  paragraphs 
from  a  paper  by  my  friend  and  brother  missionary,  the  Rev.  R. 
Baron,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  contributed  to  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  the 
Geological  Society,  for  May,  1889,  and  entitled  "Notes  on  the 
Geology  of  Madagascar."  Mr.  Baron  is  the  chief  authority  on 
the  geology  of  the  island  and  has  made  a  special  study  of  the 
petrology ;  and  all  that  he  describes  is  from  personal  observa- 


THE  CRATER  LAKE  OF  TRITRIVA.  9 1 

tion  and  microscopic  examination  of  all  the  known  rocks  of  the 
country. 

"Volcanic  Phenomena. — The  scene  of  the  greatest  dis- 
play of  former  volcanic  activity  in  Central  Madagascar  has 
undoubtedly  been  Ankaratra.  This  mountain,  situated  some 
twenty  to  thirty  miles  to  the  south-west  of  Antananarivo,  is  the 
highest  in  the  island,  attaining  an  altitude  of  nearly  9,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  It  is  a  broad  and  elevated  mass  of  land,  with  no 
very  sharp  peaks  or  ridges,  and  having,  for  the  most  part,  a 
gentle  slope  of  40-8°  on  all  sides,  so  that  it  is  not  easy  to  define  its 
exact  limits.  Roughly  speaking,  however,  it  may  be  said  to 
cover  an  area  of  perhaps  fifty  square  miles.  It  is  the  wreck  of  a 
huge,  but  ancient,  subaerial  volcano.  There  are  at  present,  so 
far  at  least  as  my  observations  go,  no  traces  of  cones  or  craters, 
but  there  are  volcanic  ejectamenta  scattered  about  which  bear 
witness  to  their  former  existence.  From  this  volcano  vast  floods 
of  liquid  lava  have  issued  and  overflowed  the  surrounding 
country  to  the  extent,  probably,  of  from  1,500  to  2,000  square 
miles.  In  fact,  almost  the  whole  of  Vakinankaratra  province 
has  been  covered  by  a  sheet  of  lava.  This  lava  has  been  poured 
out  at  various  times,  several  beds  being  superimposed  on  one 
another.  Some  of  the  lava-streams  are  probably  no  less  than 
twenty  or  twenty-five  miles  in  length,  and,  before  they  thin  out, 
from  300  to  500  feet  in  thickness.  They  are  mostly  of  a  basaltic 
character. 

"  The  lava  which  has  issued  from  the  north,  north-east,  and 
north-west  of  the  mountain  seems  to  be  almost  entirely  olivine- 
basalt  ;  whilst  that  which  has  issued  from  the  south,  south-east, 
and  south-west  seems  to  be  mainly  nepheline-basalt.  Trachyte 
also  exists  in  sheets,  apparently  below  the  basalt,  on  the  south- 
east and  south-west  side  of  the  mountain.  The  three  highest 
points  of  Ankaratra  are  Tsiafajavona,  8,494  ^^^^  above  the  sea ; 
Tsiafakafo,  8,330  feet  ;  and  Amb6hitrak6holah}\  7,730  feet. 
Tsiafajavona,  the  highest  peak,  and  Tsiafakafo  consist  of  olivine- 
basalt,  Ambohitrakoholahy  of  trachyte. 


92  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  know  at  what  period  Ankaratra 
was  in  a  state  of  eruption  ;  but  our  knowledge  of  the  mountain 
and  the  surrounding  district  is,  as  yet,  too  scanty  to  help  us  to 
any  conclusion  on  the  matter.  There  is  evidence  sufficient,  how- 
ever, to  show  that  the  volcano  is  of  comparatively  ancient  date  ; 
for,  in  the  first  place,  all  signs  of  craters  or  cones  seem  to  have  been 
effaced  through  denudation,  though  the  presence  of  fragmentary 
materials  (which,  however,  have  largely  disappeared)  manifest 
their  former  existence.  Then,  again,  numerous  deep  valleys 
have  been  excavated  out  of  the  hard  basaltic  covering  by  the 
many  streams  that  come  down  from  the  mountain,  leaving  long 
tongues  of  lava  diverging  from  the  central  mass.  Many  of  these' 
streams  have  cut  clean  through  the  beds  of  lava,  bringing  into 
view  the  gneiss  upon  which  they  are  superimposed. 

"  Some  thirty  or  forty  miles  to  the  south  of  Ankaratra  there 
are  to  be  seen  about  a  dozen  remarkably  conical  hills  without 
craters.  Whether  they  are  the  cores  of  former  volcanoes  or 
eruptive  bosses  or  remnants  of  a  former  lava  sheet,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  say,  though  I  am  inclined  to  regard  them  as  the  last. 
Votovorona  and  lakiana  (or  Ihankiana?)  are  probably  the 
highest  of  these  cones,  though  even  these  are  of  no  great  height. 
Votovorona  is  350  feet  high,  and  has  been  protruded  through 
granite.  The  angle  of  its  slope  is  over  50°.  The  rock  is 
nepheline-hornblende-phonolite.  A  few  similar  cones  exist  on 
the  south-east  of  Vavavato  mountain.  About  twenty  or  twenty- 
five  miles  N.N.E.  of  Ankaratra,  and  some  seven  or  eight  miles 
W.S.W.  of  Antananarivo,  there  is  another  of  these  probably 
eruptive  bosses.  It  is  a  low  conical  knob  of  perhaps  150  or 
200  feet  high,  and  is  also  known  by  the  name  of  Votovorona. 
It  consists  of  olivine-basalt.  There  seem  to  have  been  a  few 
small  outflows  of  lava  from  the  hill,  and  it  not  improbably  forms 
the  core  of  an  old  volcano. 

"In  Mandridrano  district,  on  the  western  side  of  Lake  Itasy, 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Betafo,  in  Vakinankaratra  (the 
former  being  fifty-five  miles  west,  and  the  latter  seventy-five 


THE  CRATER  LAKE  OF  TRITRtVA.  93 

miles  S.S.W.,  of  the  capital),  there  are  numerous  volcanic  cones, 
which  are  undoubtedly  much  more  recent  than  the  volcanic  pile 
of  Ankaratra.  Both  localities  are  about  130  miles  from  the  east 
coast  of  the  island,  and  170  from  the  west  coast.  It  is  hardly- 
necessary  to  say  that  all  these  volcanoes  are  extinct,  and  that 
there  are  none  in  activity  at  the  present  time  in  any  part  of 
Madagascar.  On  the  west  side  of  Lake  Itasy  the  volcanic 
cones  exist  in  great  numbers,  and  these  therefore  shall  be  first 
described. 

"  The  extinct  volcanoes  of  the  district  of  Mandridrano 
extend  for  a  distance  of  about  twenty  miles  north  and  south, 
and  perhaps  three  or  four  east  and  west.  The  cones  are  thickly 
studded  over  the  district,  in  some  parts  clustering  together  more 
thickly  than  in  others.  Occasionally  there  is  a  series  of  cones 
which  have  evidently  been  heaped  up  by  the  simultaneous  ejec- 
tion of  scoriae  from  different  vents  situated  on  the  same  line  of 
fissure,  but  so  that  the  cones  have  run  one  into  the  other,  leaving 
a  ridge,  generally  curvilinear,  at  the  summit.  None  of  these 
extinct  volcanoes  reach  the  height  of  1,000  feet.  Kasige,  which 
is  probably  the  highest,  I  found  by  aneroid  to  be  863  feet  above 
the  plain.  This  is  a  remarkably  perfect  and  fresh-looking 
volcano,  whose  sides  slope  at  an  angle  of  32°  or  33°.  The  scoriae 
on  the  sides  have  become  sufficiently  disintegrated  to  form  a 
soil,  on  which  is  found  a  by  no  means  scanty  flora.  On  its  top 
is  an  unbreached  funnel-shaped  crater,  which  measures,  from  the 
highest  point  of  its  rim,  243  feet  in  depth.  Contiguous  with 
Kasige,  and  adjoining  its  south  side,  though  not  so  high,  there  is 
another  volcano,  Ambohimalala,  and  many  others  are  to  be  seen 
near  by. 

"  One  thing  with  regard  to  these  volcanic  piles  soon  strikes 
the  observer ;  this  is,  that  in  the  majority  of  the  cones  one  side  of 
the  crater  is  higher  than  the  other.  Not  only  so,  but  the  higher 
side  is  situated  in  most  instances  on  the  north,  north-west,  or 
west  of  the  crater.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  direction  of  the 
wind  during  the  eruption,  causing  the  ejected  fragments  to 


94  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

accumulate  on  the  leeward  side  of  the  vent  Now  we  know 
that  the  south-east  trades  blow  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
year  in  Madagascar,  hence  the  unequal  development  of  the  sides 
of  the  cones.  The  same  thing  may  also  be  observed  in  the 
volcanic  piles  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Betafo. 

"  A  very  large  number  of  the  cones  have  breached  craters, 
whence  lava  has  flowed  in  numerous  streams  and  flooded  the 
plains  around.  These  streams  and  floods  consist,  in  most 
instances,  of  black  basaltic  lava  ;  a  sheet  of  this  lava,  the  mingled 
streams  of  which  have  flowed  from  Ambohimalala  and  some 
other  vents,  has  covered  the  plain  at  the  foot  of  Kasige  to  such 
an  extent  as  almost  to  surround  the  mountain.  Similar  sheets  are 
to  be  seen  in  other  parts  of  the  district,  but  they  are  so  much 
alike,  that  a  description  of  one  will  suffice  for  all.  Amboditai- 
mamo  is  a  small  volcanic  cone  at  the  south-west  end  of  Ifanja 
marsh,  and  at  the  northern  confines  of  the  volcanic  district.  It 
possesses  a  breached  crater  turned  towards  the  east.  From  this 
has  issued  a  stream  of  lava  which,  following  the  direction  of  the 
lowest  level  of  the  ground,  has  swept  through  a  small  valley 
round  the  northern  end  of  the  cone,  and  spread  out  at  its 
western  foot.  This  sheet  of  lava,  which  is  extremely  rough  on 
the  surface,  occupies  but  a  small  area  of  some  two  or  three 
square  miles.  It  has  been  arrested  in  its  flow  in  front  by  the 
form  of  the  ground.  It  is  cut  through  in  one  part  by  a  stream 
(Ikotombolo)  which,  in  some  places,  has  worn  a  channel  to  the 
depth  of  eighty  or  ninety  feet.  Its  surface,  which  is  slightly 
cellular,  is  covered  by  hundreds  of  mammiform  hillocks,  which 
must  have  been  formed  during  the  cooling  of  the  liquid  mass. 
The  hillocks  are  mostly  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  high,  and 
apparently  are  heaped-up  masses  of  lava,  and  not  hollow  blisters. 
The  lava  itself  is  black,  heavy,  and  compact,  being  porphyritic 
with  somewhat  large  crystals  of  augite.  As  yet  it  is  scarcely 
decomposed  sufficiently  to  form  much  of  a  soil,  though  grass  and 
a  few  other  plants  grow  on  it  abundantly. 

"  As  to  the  nature  of  the  volcanic  rocks  of  the  district,  it  may 


THE  CRATER  LAKE  OF  TRITRIvA.  95 

be  said  that  these  comprise  basalt,  andesite,  trachyte,  trachytic 
tuff,  palagonite  tuff,  and  Hmburgite.  Some  of  the  trachytic  rocks 
contain  large  porphyritic  crystals  of  glassy  felspar  (sanidine). 
Pumice,  obsidian,  and  pitchstone  do  not  seem  anywhere  to  be 
found. 

"  In  addition  to  the  numerous  scoria-cones,  there  may  be 
seen  scattered  here  and  there  in  the  district  some  dozen  or  more 
other  volcanoes,  differing  entirely  in  character  from  those  which 
have  been  spoken  of  above.  These  are  large  bell-shaped 
hummocks  of  trachyte  or  andesite.  They  are  without  definite 
craters,  though  one  or  two  of  them  have  more  or  less  conspicuous 
depressions  on  their  summits,  showing  that  eruptive  action  has 
not  been  altogether  wanting.  These  hummocks  are  chiefly 
composed  of  a  light-coloured  compact  rock.  This  rock,  having 
originally  had  a  highly  viscid  or  pasty  consistency,  has  accumu- 
lated and  set  immediately  over  the  orifice  through  which  it  was 
extruded. 

"It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  these  extinct  volcanoes  of 
Mandridrano  must  have  been  in  activity  in  comparatively  recent 
times.  Possibly  they  belong  to  the  historic  period,  though,  so 
far  as  I  am  aware,  no  tradition  lingers  with  regard  to  their  being 
in  a  state  of  eruption.  That  they  are,  at  any  rate,  of  recent 
date  is  shown  by  the  good  state  of  preservation  in  which  most 
of  the  cones  are  still  found  and  by  the  undecomposed  (or  slightly 
decomposed)  character  of  the  lava-streams  that  have  issued  from 
them.  There  have  been  no  terrestrial  disturbances  or  modifica- 
tions of  any  magnitude  since  the  days  of  their  fiery  energy  ;  the 
conformation  of  hill  and  dale  was  the  same  then  as  now,  for  in 
every  instance  the  lava-streams  have  adapted  themselves  to  the 
form  of  the  existing  valleys." 


CHAPTER  VI. 


AMBATOVdRY,  ONE  OF  OUR  HOLIDAY  RESORTS  IN  MADA- 
GASCAR ;  WITH  NATURAL  HISTORY  AND  OTHER 
NOTES. 

The  Rest-house — Amboniloha  Hill — A  deserted  village — Ambatovory  rock — 
Woodland  paths — Birds — Lizards  and  chameleons  —  Grasshoppers — Pro- 
tective colouring — Waning  colours — Beetles — Ants  and  ant-nests — Ball- 
insects — Spiders — Butterflies — King  Butterfly — Solitary  wasps — Wasp-nests 
— Angavokely  Mountain — Extensive  prospect. 

BY  the  kind  consideration  of  the  Directors  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society  for  the  comfort  and  health  of  their 
missionaries  in  the  central  province  of  Imerina,  we  have  had 
for  some  years  past  a  pleasant  Country-house  or  Sanatorium,  to 
which,  after  a  year  or  so  of  steady  labour  in  college,  or  school, 
or  hospital,  or  church  and  district,  we  can  go  for  a  fortnight  or 
a  month's  quiet  holiday.  This  peaceful  resting-place  is  situated 
about  twelve  miles  east  of  Antananarivo,  on  the  Tamatave  road, 
a  mile  and  a  half  beyond  the  mission  station  of  Isoavina,  and  a 
mile  or  less  west  of  a  great  rounded  mass  of  granite  rising 
about  400  feet  above  the  rice-valleys,  and  known  as  Ambato- 
vory, I.e.,  "  Round  rock."  On  the  summit  and  eastern  and 
western  slopes  of  this  huge  boss  of  rock  are  numerous  trees, 
much  more  plentiful  on  the  western  side,  where  they  stretch 
down  into  a  deep  valley  and  form  an  amphitheatre  of  wood  and 
bush.  This  vegetation  is  probably  a  remnant  of  the  original 
forest,  which  once  covered  a  much  larger  area  of  this  mostly 

bare  and  treeless  Imerina,  and  it  forms  a  refreshing  contrast  to 

96 


AMBATOVORY,  ONE  OF  OUR  HOLIDAY  RESORTS.  9/ 


the  moory  hills  and  rocky  mountains  which  are  seen  in  every 
direction.  The  Mission  Rest-house  is  a  good  six-roomed 
dwelling  on  the  slope  of  the  hill  facing  the  south,  and  from  it 
the  ground  falls  rapidly  down  to  the  rice-valleys  a  couple  of 
hundred  feet  below,  the  large  piece  of  ground  belonging  to  the 
house  joining  on  to  the  bush  and  scattered  trees  of  the  Amba- 
tovory  forest,  so  that  in  two  minutes'  time  one  can  stroll  into 
the  woods,  through  which  a  number  of  paths  have  recently 
been  cut,  or,  turning  in  the  opposite  direction,  can  walk  over 
the  breezy  downs  towards  Isoavina.  Here  is  the  pleasant 
mission-house  of  Mr.  Peake,  with  its  long  row  of  cottages  for 
the  workmen  in  the  industrial  school  which  he  has  carried  on 
for  several  years,  its  school-  and  class-rooms  and  its  pretty 
church  and  school-house,  forming  altogether  a  model  mission 
station. 

Behind  the  Rest-house  rises  for  several  hundred  feet  above 
it  a  rounded  hill  called  Amboniloha,  i.e.,  "  Over-head,"  a  not 
inappropriate  name.  Like  scores  of  hills  throughout  Imerina, 
a  number  of  deeply-cut  lines  round  the  summit  show  that  this 
place  was  formerly  the  site  of  a  well-fortified  town.  These 
lines,  which  can  be  seen  for  miles  away,  prove  on  closer 
inspection  to  be  deep  fosses  cut  in  the  hard  red  earth,  a 
treble  line  of  defence  one  within  the  other,  the  innermost 
rampart  being  strengthened  by  a  low  wall  of  massive  stones. 
No  building  now  remains  in  this  "  deserted  village,"  but  many 
squares  of  grass-grown  stones  can  be  traced,  showing  the 
former  outline  of  the  wooden  framework  of  the  houses  ;  and 
on  the  highest  spot  there  is  an  ancient  tomb,  where  doubtless 
some  of  "  the  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet "  sleep  their  last 
sleep. 

In  front  of  the  house,  looking  south-west,  the  view  is  partly 
shut  in,  at  a  mile  or  two's  distance,  by  lofty  rocky  hills  rising 
high  above  the  rice-valleys  far  below  ;  but  to  the  south-east  one 
gets  a  peep  into  a  distant  prospect  of  lines  of  hills,  some  of  the 
nearer  ones  being  enormous  masses  of  bare  rock  ;  while  to  the 

8 


98  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

east  the  view  is  closed  by  the  smooth,  rounded  slopes  of  Amba- 
tovory  itself,  with  the  woods  around  it  and  stretching  down  into 
the  deep  valley  at  its  base. 

There  are  many  pleasant  walks  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Sanatorium.  One  of  these  is  to  the  top  of  the  Ambatovory 
rock,  from  which  there  is  an  extensive  view,  and  around  which, 
to  east  and  south,  are  fine  trees  and  pleasant  shady  spots,  where 
a  picnic  party  can  be  improvised,  and  where  ferns  and  other 
plants  can  be  gathered.  A  few  years  ago  there  was  a  small 
village  on  the  spot ;  four  or  five  years  ago  there  were  about 
that  number  of  houses ;  while  now  there  is  not  one  left,  the 
people,  as  is  usual  throughout  Imerina,  deserting  these  incon- 
venient heights  for  the  plains.  But  a  row  of  half-a-dozen  old 
tombs,  with  small  timber  houses  on  their  tops,  shows  that  this 
was  a  village  of  one  of  the  noble  clans  or  Andriana^  who  alone 
are  allowed  to  make  such  wooden  houses,  Trano  mdsina  or 
Trano  manara,  as  they  are  called  {i.e.^  "  Sacred  houses,"  or 
"  Cold  houses  "  i).  These  are,  however,  now  tumbling  to  pieces, 
and  after  two  or  three  more  rainy  seasons  heaps  of  rotting  wood 
will  be  all  that  is  left  over  the  tombs  of  these  departed  great 
ones  of  the  district. 

Another  easily  reached  spot  is  a  detached  rock,  something 
like  a  miniature  Ambatovory,  but  a  short  distance  to  the  south 
of  it.  Here  a  scramble  over  a  great  sloping  surface  of  gneiss 
brings  us  to  a  rough  ascent  leading  to  an  ancient  gateway.  The 
top  of  this  rock  was  evidently  a  fort  of  the  old  times,  for, 
except  where  we  climb  up,  there  is  no  approaching  the  summit 
and  no  need  of  fosses  or  ramparts,  as  the  smooth  rock  slopes 
away  perpendicularly  all  around,  and  in  the  days  before  guns 
and  gunpowder  a  dozen  resolute  men  could  have  barred  the 
narrow  approach  against  a  hundred  assailants. 

The  paths  through  the  woods  are,  however,  among  the  most 
pleasant  places  for  a  walk  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ambato- 
vory ;  and  although  the  small  remnant  of  old  forest  is  too 
^  "  Cold,"  because  they  are  houses  having  no  hearth  or  fire  to  warm  them. 


ambatov6ry,  one  of  our  holiday  resorts.  99 

limited  in  extent  to  furnish  much  variety  in  animal  life, 
there  is  still  a  great  deal  to  interest  those  who  have  a  taste 
for  natural  history,  especially  if  they  will  only  use  their  eyes. 

Of  four-footed  creatures  in  the  shape  of  mammalia  there 
are  none,  except  possibly  some  of  the  small  hedgehog-like 
creatures  (the  Centetid^e),  as  the  woods  are  far  too  restricted  in 
range  for  any  species  of  the  lemurs  to  find  a  home  there,  and 
there  is  no  great  variety  even  of  birds.  There  is  a  space  of 
fifteen  or  sixteen  miles  of  bare  moors  between  this  place  and 
the  upper  forest,  so  that  few  of  the  numerous  feathered  tribes 
of  the  wooded  regions  come  over  the  intervening  country.  In 
the  warm  season  the  kow-kow  koiu-koo  of  the  Kankafotra^  the 
Madagascar  cuckoo,  is  continually  heard  among  the  trees  and 
bushes,  as  well  as  the  chirping  and  whistling  cries  of  a  few  of 
the  smaller  and  less  conspicuous  birds,  and  the  cooing  note  of 
one  of  the  wood-pigeons.  About  the  rocks  one  may  constantly 
hear  the  querulous  cry  of  the  little  Hitsikitsika,  or  kestrel,  and 
see  them  hovering  in  the  air  or  darting  about ;  and  now  and 
then  we  come  across  a  flock  of  the  Papdngo,  or  Egyptian  kite, 
perched  on  the  trees,  or  swooping  down  near  the  native  houses 
to  carry  off  an  unwary  chicken  or  mouse.  Of  course  the  ubi- 
quitous Goaika,  or  native  crow,  is  never  far  away.  With  his 
fine  white  collar  and  square  white  patch  on  his  breast,  he  has 
a  very  clerical  appearance  ;  he  haunts  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
great  open-air  markets,  where  he  apparently  picks  up  a  good 
living  from  the  scattered  rice  and  refuse  of  various  kinds.  In 
the  warm  season  flocks  of  the  little  weaver-birds  may  be  seen, 
both  the  FSdy,  the  male  of  which  is  mostly  of  a  brilliant  scarlet 
at  the  hot  season  of  the  year,  and  the  smaller  Tsikirity,  in  sober 
brown  livery,  which  darts  down  like  an  arrow  on.  the  rice-fields 
in  companies  of  thirty  or  forty  together.  In  the  rice-fields  the 
Tdkatra,  a  brown  stork,  may  be  sometimes  seen  stepping 
solemnly  about.  He  builds  an  enormous  nest,  which  looks  as 
large  as  a  truss  of  hay  and  is  fixed  on  the  fork  of  a  tree  or  on 
the  edge  of  a  large  rock,  and  there  are  many  superstitions  and 


TOO  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

fables  connected  with  him.  In  the  old  times  of  idolatry,  if  one 
of  these  storks  crossed  the  path  along  which  any  of  the  chief 
idols  was  being  carried,  it  was  immediately  taken  back,  and  it 
was  thought  equally  unlucky  if  it  crossed  the  road  in  front  of 
the  sovereign. 

The  reptiles  to  be  found  near  Ambatovory  are  small  and 
inconspicuous.  Two  or  three  species  of  lizard  are  frequently 
seen  :  the  pretty  little  Antsiantsy,  with  brown  coat  and  white 
lines  and  dark  spots  along  its  sides,  eight  or  ten  inches  long, 
darts  about  like  an  arrow  on  rocks  and  sunny  banks,  while  a 
smaller  species,  about  four  inches  long,  is  of  an  exquisite  green 
colour  above,  with  black  and  white  lines  along  its  sides,  and  pale 
grey  underneath.  It  is  often  seen  running  around  the  fleshy 
leaves  of  the  aloes,  its  tinting  forming  a  protective  resemblance 
among  its  surroundings.  Equally  beautiful  are  the  bright  tints 
of  some  of  the  small  chameleons — black  and  yellow,  and  red 
and  green — and  equally  protective  also,  in  case  of  need,  is  their 
power  of  changing  into  dull  grey  or  brown  when  alarmed. 
Small  pretty  brown  snakes  may  be  often  seen,  from  eighteen 
inches  to  two  feet  long,  and  happily  they  are  perfectly  harmless, 
as,  indeed,  are  all  the  serpents  of  this  great  island — at  least, 
there  are  none  whose  bite  is  dangerous.  And  yet  it  is  amusing 
to  see  how  the  Malagasy  leap  out  of  their  way  with  the  greatest 
alarm.  We  found  on  one  occasion  a  very  large  earthworm, 
three  times  as  long  and  bulky  as  any  we  had  ever  seen  in 
England. 

But  perhaps  it  is  the  insects  which  attract  one's  attention 
most  constantly.  On  the  open  downs,  and  when  the  sun  is 
shining,  the  air  is  filled  with  the  hum  of  chirping  insect  life 
from  the  many  species  of  grasshoppers,  crickets,  and  small 
locusts  which  cover  the  ground.  Every  step  among  the  long 
dry  grass  disturbs  a  score  of  these  insects,  which  leap  in  all 
directions  from  one's  path  as  we  proceed,  sometimes  dashing  on 
one's  face  with  a  smart  blow.  The  majority  of  these  are  of 
various  shades  of  brown  and  green,  and  some  of  the  larger 


AMBATOVORY,  ONE  OF  OUR  HOLIDAY  RESORTS.  lOI 


Species  of  grasshopper  are  remarkable  for  their  protective 
colouring.  Here  is  one  whose  legs  and  wings  are  exactly  like 
dry  grass  ;  the  body  is  like  a  broad  blade  of  some  green  plant, 
the  antennae  are  two  little  tufts  like  yellow  grass,  and  the  eyes 
are  just  like  two  small  brown  seeds.  But,  curiously  enough, 
when  it  flies  a  pair  of  bright  scarlet  wings  make  its  flight  very 
conspicuous.  You  pursue  it,  to  catch  such  a  brightly  coloured 
insect,  when  it  settles,  and  lo !  it  has  vanished  ;  only  something 
resembling  green  or  dry  grass  remains,  which  it  requires  sharp 
eyes  to  distinguish  from  the  surrounding  herbage.  Other  grass- 
hoppers are  entirely  like  green  grass  blades  and  stalks,  and 
others,  again,  resemble  equally  closely  dried  grass,  and  unless 
the  insects  move  under  one's  eyes  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
detect  them.  One  is  puzzled  to  guess  where  the  vital  organs 
can  be  placed  in  such  dry-looking  little  sticks.  There  is  one 
species  of  mantis  also,  which,  in  the  shape  and  colour  of  its 
wings,  legs,  antennae,  and  body,  presents  as  close  a  resemblance 
to  its  environment  as  do  the  grasshoppers.  Their  curious  heads, 
however,  which  turn  round  and  look  at  one  in  quite  an  uncanny 
manner,  and  their  formidably  serrated  fore-legs  or  arms,  put  up 
in  mock  pious  fashion,  give  them  a  distinctly  different  appearance 
from  the  other  insects.  In  the  dry  and  cooler  season,  on  almost 
every  square  foot  of  ground  is  a  large  brown  caterpillar,  often 
many  of  them  close  together,  feeding  on  the  young  blades  of  grass. 

But  the  most  handsome  insect  one  sees  on  the  downs  is  the 
Valdlanainboa,  or  dog-locust.  This  is  large  and  is  gorgeously 
coloured,  the  body  being  barred  with  stripes  of  yellow  and  black, 
while  the  head  and  thorax  are  green  and  blue  and  gold,  witii 
shades  of  crimson,  and  the  wings  are  bright  scarlet.  It  seems  a 
most  desirable  insect  for  a  cabinet,  but  it  is  impossible  to  keep 
one,  for  it  has  a  most  abominable  smell,  and  this,  as  well  as  its 
probable  possession  of  a  nauseous  taste,  appears  to  be  its  pro- 
tection, so  that  no  bird  or  other  creature  feeds  upon  it  This 
insect  seems,  therefore,  a  good  example  of  "  warning  colours  "  ; 
it  has  no  need  of    protective  resemblance "  lest  it  should  be 


102  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

devoured  by  enemies  ;  it  can  flaunt  its  gay  livery  without  fear, 
indeed  this  seems  exaggerated  in  order  to  say  to  outsiders : 
"Hands  off!"  Nemo  vie  impune  lacessit!'  The  Malagasy 
have  a  proverb  which  runs  thus  :  "  Valalanamboa  :  ny  toinpony 
aza  tsy  tia  ;  "  i.e.,  "  The  dog-locust,  even  its  owner  dislikes  it" 

There  are  many  species  of  beetles  to  be  seen,  although  none 
of  them  are  very  handsome  or  conspicuous.  The  most  common 
kind  is  a  broad  flat  insect,  about  an  inch  long,  and  dull  dark- 
brown  in  colour,  which  crosses  one's  path  at  every  step. 
Another  is  seen  chiefly  on  the  bushes,  a  smaller  insect,  but 
bright  shining  jet-black.  Another,  which  appears  as  if  it 
mimicked  a  wasp  in  its  habit  of  flight,  is  shot  with  brown  and 
green,  with  very  long  legs,  and  is  constantly  taking  short  flights 
or  running  rapidly.  Another  one,  but  much  more  rare,  has 
golden  green  and  metallic  tints  on  its  wing-cases.  But  the 
insect  which  has  puzzled  us  most  is  one  that  I  have  never  seen 
but  on  one  spot,  viz.,  on  a  large  bush  of  Roiineviy,  a  plant  with 
acacia-like  leaves,  with  prickles  along  the  leaf-stalks,  and  on 
only  one  bush  of  this,  which  is  within  a  few  yards  of  the  Rest- 
house  at  Ambatovory.  It  is  like  a  beetle  about  five-eighths  of 
an  inch  long,  and  almost  hemispherical  in  shape.  It  is  warm 
reddish-brown  in  colour,  with  a  line  of  black  and  then  of  yellow 
next  the  head,  and  is  perfectly  flat  below.  These  insects  cluster 
closely,  as  thick  as  they  can  lie,  in  groups  of  from  a  dozen  to 
more  than  a  hundred  together,  all  round  the  thicker  stems,  so 
that  they  look  at  a  little  distance  like  strings  of  large  brown 
beads ;  and  in  some  of  the  topmost  branches  they  form  a  con- 
tinuous mass  for  two  or  three  feet.  Amongst  these  shining 
brown  insects  are  a  few  others  of  quite  a  different  colour  and 
shape,  perfectly  flat,  like  a  minute  tortoise,  and  of  a  uniform 
grey,  exactly  resembling  the  lichen  on  the  bark  of  the  tree,  and 
the  edges  of  the  carapace  scolloped. ^    These  grey  insects  are  in 

'  Mr.  Baron  tells  me  that  both  kinds  are  certainly  species  of  bug,  and  that 
they  are  common  on  other  kinds  of  trees.  They  have  a  very  bad  smell.  Nearer 
the  forest  are  other  kinds  of  bugs,  but  of  the  most  brilliant  colours,  and  also  evil 
smelling. 


ambAtovory,  one  of  our  holiday  resorts.  103 

the  proportion  of  about  one  to  forty  or  fifty  of  the  darker- 
coloured  ones.  There  are  also  a  few  individuals  of  the  same 
shape  as  the  brown  one,  but  yellowish-green  in  colour.  What 
these  grey  insects  can  be,  and  what  relation  they  bear  to  the 
much  more  numerous  brown  one,  I  cannot  make  out.  Nor  can 
I  ascertain  why  they  all  remain  motionless  and  in  the  same 
position  for  weeks  together.  During  the  three  weeks  of  our  stay 
here,  at  any  rate,  they  seem  not  to  have  altered  in  position, 
although  I  think  the  lower  clusters  are  slightly  diminished  in 
number.  I  thought  at  first  that  they  must  be  feeding  in  some 
way  on  the  tree,  as  their  heads  seem  closely  fixed  to  the  bark, 
as  indeed  is  the  whole  body  ;  but  on  minute  examination  I  can 
find  no  trace  of  any  puncture  or  sign  of  their  gnawing  or  eating 
the  bark,  although  the  branches  on  which  they  are  most  thickly 
clustered  seem  more  dry  and  withered  than  the  others.  Their 
torpid  condition  certainly  does  not  arise  from  inability  to  move, 
for,  on  being  disturbed  or  shaken  off,  they  will  fly  a  considerable 
distance,  and  will  creep  along  the  branches.  I  have  noticed 
these  insects  on  the  same  bush,  and  nowhere  else,  during 
previous  visits  to  Ambatovory  at  this  time  of  the  year  (Decem- 
ber), but  not  during  the  cold  season.^ 

[Since  writing  the  above,  I  have  had  another  inspection,  in 
the  cold  season,  of  the  tree  with  these  curious  insects.  There 
are  now  (June)  to  be  seen  not  a  single  one  of  the  brown  bugs, 
but  the  branches  are  thickly  covered  with  hundreds  of  young 
ones,  about  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  but  these 
are  all  flat,  and  grey  in  colour,  with  the  edge  of  the  body  serrated. 
The  difference  in  shape  and  colour  in  insects  so  closely  associated 
together  certainly  seems  remarkable.] 

The  ants  are,  as  in  all  tropical  countries,  very  numerous  and 
of  many  species.  All  of  them,  from  minute  kinds  not  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  long  to  others  half  an  inch  to  five-eighths  of  an  inch 
in  length,  appear  to  make  nests  in  the  ground,  with  circular 
shafts  leading  down  to  them  from  the  surface.  It  is  amusing  to 
^  I  have  subsequently  seen  it  in  other  places. 


I04  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

watch  the  busy  industry  of  these  little  creatures,  the  sides  of 
the  shafts  being  covered  with  their  shining  black  bodies,  those 
coming  up  being  laden  with  a  little  pellet  of  earth,  which  they 
deposit  outside  the  slope,  and  then  hurry  back  down  below. 
All  round  the  mouth  of  the  entrance  is  a  considerable  mound 
of  earth,  all  brought  up  grain  by  grain  by  the  busy  workers. 
The  ants  are  the  scavengers  of  the  country.  No  beetle,  or 
worm,  or  grub,  or  animal  matter  of  any  kind,  can  be  many 
minutes  on  the  ground  before  it  is  detected  by  some  ant,  who 
communicates  the  fact  forthwith  to  its  fellows,  and  they  imme- 
diately fall  on  the  spoil,  cut  it  in  pieces,  and  convey  it  to  their 
stronghold.  It  is  astonishing  to  see  the  heavy  loads — pieces  of 
sugar-cane,  or  yam,  or  other  food — that  two  or  three  ants  will 
stagger  along  with  for  the  common  weal.  Truly,  although  they 
are  small  folk,  they  are  "  exceeding  wise."  The  thinking  power 
in  that  minute  point,  an  ant's  head,  is  certainly  one  of  the  most 
marvellous  things  in  animated  nature. 

While  speaking  of  wingless  insects,  I  may  notice  here  a  very 
different  kind  of  one  from  the  ants,  viz.,  the  ball-insect  {Sphero- 
therium  sp.),  of  which  there  are  several  species  in  Madagascar. 
These  insects,  called  not  very  elegantly  by  the  Malagasy  Tain- 
klntana,  or  "  star-droppings,"  have  the  power  of  instantaneously 
rolling  themselves  into  an  almost  perfect  sphere,  which  form 
they  retain  as  long  as  any  danger  threatens  them,  and  no  force 
short  of  pulling  them  to  pieces  can  make  them  unroll.  The 
animal  is  formed  of  nine  or  ten  segments,  each  with  a  pair  of 
legs,  and  covered  with  a  plate  of  armour ;  while  the  head  and 
tail  are  defended  by  large  plates,  each  of  which  fits  into  the 
other  and  makes  a  more  perfectly  fitting  suit  of  armour  than 
was  ever  worn  by  medieval  knight.  There  are  several  species 
of  these  pretty  and  curious  creatures.  The  most  common  kind 
here  is  one  which  forms  a  ball  barely  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
shining  black  in  colour.  Another,  more  rarely  seen  here,  but 
common  enough  in  the  upper  belt  of  forest,  is  of  a  beautiful 
brown  colour  like  Russia  leather,  and  is  quite  double  the  size  of 


AMBATOVORV,  ONE  OF  OUR  HOLIDAY  RESORTS.  I05 

the  first-mentioned  one.  In  passing  through  the  main  forest  in 
1892,  we  came  suddenly  one  day  to  a  part  of  the  road  which 
was  so  thickly  covered  by  such  a  great  number  of  these 
creatures  that  our  bearers  could  not  avoid  trampling  on  them. 
These  were  of  a  bronze-green  tint  and  are  probably  a  third 
species. 

In  all  parts  of  Madagascar  the  spiders  are  very  conspicuous 
members  of  the  insect-world.  The  most  common  kind  is  a 
species  of  Epeira,  which  spins  large  webs  and  may  be  seen  by 
scores  between  the  branches  of  trees  and  the  angles  of  buildings. 
These  are  large  insects,  their  legs  stretching  over  four  or  five 
inches,  and  their  bodies  being  handsomely  coloured  with  red  and 
gold  and  silver  markings.  From  the  way  in  which  these  spiders 
cross  with  their  great  webs  the  fosses  round  the  old  villages  they 
are  called  by  the  Malagasy  J/^^;;//^V<:^//^<^,  "  fosse-crossers." 
The  main  "  guys  "  or  stays  of  their  webs  are  strong  and  thick 
yellow  silk  cords,  which  require  an  effort  to  break.  Another 
species,  also  common,  is  somewhat  crab-like  in  shape,  with 
curious  spiny  processes  on  the  abdomen  and  thorax.  Other 
smaller  species  of  spider,  found  on  leaves  and  in  flowers,  are 
coloured  exactly  like  their  surroundings,  some  being  of  various 
shades  of  green,  and  others  pure  white,  apparently  that,  with 
these  protective  resemblances,  they  may  more  easily  pounce 
upon  the  smaller  flies  and  other  insects  attracted  to  the  flowers. 

In  these  bare  upper  highlands  of  Madagascar  butterflies  are 
not  found  in  as  great  variety  as  in  the  warmer  regions  of  the 
island.  Still  there  are  a  few  species  which  are  common  enough, 
the  most  plentiful  being  one  which  is  satiny-blue  above,  and 
spotted  with  brown  and  grey  underneath.  This  is  to  be  seen  all 
the  year  round,  especially  hovering  over  the  Euphorbia  hedges 
which  divide  plantations  from  the  roads.  Another,  also  toler- 
ably common,  is  a  large  reddish-brown  butterfly,  the  wings 
edged  with  black  and  white.  Much  more  rare  is  an  insect  with 
four  large  round  white  spots  on  dark  chocolate-brown  wings  ; 
and  another,  dark-brown  in  colour,  with  eye-like  spots  of  blue 


I06  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

and  red.  Several  small  species,  yellow,  white,  or  brown,  or 
silvery-grey  and  blue,  are  found  hovering  over,  or  settling 
on,  damp  places ;  and  there  are  two  or  three  white  species, 
with  black  spots  or  lines  on  the  edges  of  the  wings.  In 
the  warmer  season  a  handsome  large  Papilio  is  rather  common 
in  our  gardens,  with  dark-green  and  sulphur-yellow  spots  and 
markings.  And  lastly,  but  rather  scarce,  is  one  of  the  hand- 
somest butterflies  in  the  world  (more  strictly  speaking,  it  is  a 
diurnal  moth),  the  Urania  iHphoea.  This  insect,  with  its  colour- 
ing of  green  and  gold,  and  scarlet  and  black,  and  its  delicate 
fringing  of  pure  white  on  the  edges  of  the  wings,  is  indeed  one 
of  the  most  lovely  productions  of  Nature.  The  Malagasy  call  it 
Andriandblo,  i.e.,  "king  butterfly"  (or  moth). 

We  do  not  see  many  bees  in  this  Arribatovory  wood,  but 
there  are  several  species  of  solitary  wasps,  whose  habits  are  very 
interesting.  One  species  excavates  a  hole  in  the  ground  or  on 
the  side  of  a  bank,  and  then,  capturing  some  unfortunate  spider 
or  caterpillar,  which  she  benumbs  with  her  sting,  carries  it  into 
the  hole  and  lays  an  egg  in  its  body,  so  that  the  little  grub, 
when  hatched,  finds  itself  surrounded  by  food,  and  then  eats  its 
way  out  into  the  daylight.  The  hole  is,  after  being  filled  up, 
so  carefully  concealed  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  discover  it. 
Another  species  of  wasp  builds  a  series  of  cells  of  clay,  which 
the  busy  worker  brings  in  pellets  and  builds  up  layer  by  layer, 
fixing  them  to  the  sides  of  houses  and  rocks,  and  storing  each 
cell  with  living  food  for  its  progeny  in  the  same  fashion  as  its 
mining  cousin. ^ 

Our  longest  excursion  was  one  to  the  grand  mountain  of 
Angavokely,  which  is  two  or  three  hours'  ride  to  the  east,  to  the 
south  of  the  Tamatave  road.  Angavokely  is  one  of  the  highest 
and  most  conspicuous  mountains  in  Imerina,  rising  1,300  or 
1,400  feet  above  the  general  level  of  the  province ;  and  it 

'  For  a  very  full  and  illustrated  account  of  these  insects,  see  a  paper  by  the 
Rev.  C.  P.  Cory,  "  Notes  on  the  Habits  of  the  Solitary  Wasps  of  Madagascar," 
A  ini iial  xiw,  1890,  pp.  163-170, 


AMBATOVORV,  ONE  OF  OUR  HOLIDAY  RESORTS.  10/ 

extends  for  two  or  three  miles  east  and  west,  with  two  summits 
nearly  equal  in  height,  and  quite  a  mile  apart.  The  easternmost 
of  these  rises  steeply  from  the  surrounding  valleys,  and  is 
crowned  by  enormous  piles  of  rock,  while  the  western  summit 
rises  with  much  gentler  slopes  covered  with  bush,  except  on  the 
south  side,  where  great  masses  of  granite  appear,  looking  like 
the  towers  of  some  Titanic  castle.  A  couple  of  hours'  ride 
brought  us  to  the  rice-valley  immediately  under  the  eastern  peak, 
and  from  which  we  commenced  the  ascent,  a  pretty  steep  one. 
At  about  a  third  of  the  way  up  is  a  large  bare  sloping  surface  of 
tock,  on  which  we  were  glad  to  rest  and  take  breath.  Again  we 
climb  up,  the  grass  being  very  slippery,  and  foothold  very  dif- 
ficult. As  we  get  higher  we  come  into  a  dense  shrubbery  of 
bush  and  small  trees ;  and  all  around  are  hundreds  of  the  large 
showy  white  flower  called  Tsingatsa  (a  species  of  Crinuvt),  with 
its  long  ribbon-like  petals  and  powerful  scent.  One  more  halt 
at  the  base  of  the  immense  bare  rocks  which  form  the  summit, 
and  which  tower  grandly  for  300  or  400  feet  above  us,  and 
make  us  all  look  like  pigmies  in  contrast,  and  then  we  make 
a  final  effort,  scrambling  up  among  the  huge  stones,  until  at 
length  we  come  to  a  rough  staircase  between  two  w^alls  of 
granite,  with  beautiful  embroideries  of  moss  and  lichen  and 
fern.  Up,  up  we  go,  and  at  last  come  upon  a  level  platform 
several  hundred  square  yards  in  extent,  and  are  glad  to  throw 
ourselves  down  on  the  grass  and  recover  breath  after  our  climb. 

From  this  "  coign  of  vantage,"  many  hundred  feet  above  the 
valley,  we  have  of  course  a  very  extensive  and  varied  prospect. 
To  the  north-west  is  the  round  mass  of  Lohavohitra  in  Voni- 
zongo,  and  the  long  serrated  ridge  of  Andringitra,  with  its  cave 
(the  Malagasy  Delphi) ;  away  north  is  the  line  of  Ambohimia- 
katra,  and  the  point  of  Ambaravarambato  ("  Stone-gateway  "), 
on  the  way  to  Antsihanaka  ;  from  north-east  to  south-east  is 
the  long  dark  line  of  the  upper  forest,  with  Angavo  and  Ifody 
mountains,  over  which  we  cross  on  our  way  to  and  from  the 
coast  ;  beyond  this  again  is  the  treeless  plain  of  Ankay  ;  and 


I08  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

still  beyond  and  bounding  the  view,  50,  60,  or  70  miles  in  the 
blue  distance,  is  the  larger  and  lower  forest,  and  ridges  and 
peaks  which  we  can  see  clearly  from  Tamatave.  Only  due  west 
is  the  view  interrupted,  for  we  are  not  yet  on  the  topmost 
pinnacle,  there  being  still  a  mass  of  rock  100  feet  higher  still, 
up  to  which  our  bearers  scramble,  but  which  we  are  quite 
content  to  leave  them  the  honour  of  scaling,  as  the  ascent 
appears  somewhat  difficult.  Still,  by  going  round  the  edges  of 
the  platform,  we  can  catch  all  the  more  prominent  points  to  the 
south  and  south-west :  Iharanandriana,  on  the  road  to  Betsileo  ; 
many  familiar-looking  hills  west  of  the  capital  ;  Antananarivo 
on  its  long  rocky  ridge,  crowned  by  the  group  of  royal  palaces 
and  two  of  the  memorial  churches ;  and,  rising  gradually  but 
unmistakably  far  above  all,  the  mass  of  Ankaratra,  the  highest 
point  of  the  island,  40  miles  away,  and  its  three  or  four  central 
peaks  nearly  9,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  about  half  as  much 
as  that  from  the  general  level  of  Imerina.  Truly  a  grand 
prospect,  for,  except  from  Ankaratra  itself,  there  is  hardly  any 
point  where  we  could  command  such  an  extensive  view  as  this. 
Steep  down  below  us  to  the  east  is  a  pretty  rice-valley  stretching 
in  a  remarkably  straight  line  for  several  miles  both  to  north-east 
and  south-west.  The  houses  and  hamlets  below  look  as  if  a 
stone  could  be  thrown  upon  them  from  this  1,000  or  1,200  feet 
of  elevation  ;  and  as  our  eyes  follow  the  green  rice-fields,  village 
after  village  appears  on  the  promontory-like  tanety  or  gentle 
rising  grounds,  so  that  we  think  what  a  fine  field  of  work  there 
would  be  in  this  valley  alone  for  a  resident  missionary. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES. 


Mixed  nomenclature  of  coast  and  interior  places — Early  European  influence — 
Arab  and  Portuguese  names — Influence  of  Fady  or  Taboo — Name  of  Mada- 
gascar— Mountain  names — The  name-prefixes  An-  and  Am  Height  and 

prominence — Mystery-  and  dread — Size — Words  meaning  rock  and  stone — 
Animals  and  birds — Personal  names  for  hills — Grandeur  of  mountain  scenery 
— River  names — Descriptive  epithets — Lake  names — Town  and  village  names 
— Dual  names — Names  of  capital  and  its  divisions — Town  names  from  natural 
features — Forests — River  banks  from  animals — Personal — Tribal — Province 
names — Appendix  on  Betsileo  place-names. 


LACE-NAMES,  it  is  now  acknowledged,  form  one  of  the 


X  most  reliable  sources  of  information  as  to  ancient  and 
prehistoric  times,  and  are  among  the  most  enduring  and  un- 
altering  records  of  the  past.  In  all  the  older  countries  of  the 
world  the  names  of  the  mountains  and  rivers,  of  the  fields  and 
the  valleys,  of  the  farms  and  villages  and  towns,  as  well  as  of  all 
other  geographical  features,  reveal  the  existence  and  successive 
occupation  of  the  soil  from  remote  epochs  by  many  different 
races  of  mankind.  And  in  the  newer  countries  the  names  given 
to  places  tell  in  the  plainest  terms  of  their  discoverers,  and  often 
fix  the  date  of  their  becoming  known  to  the  civilised  world. 

An  inspection  of  a  map  of  the  island  of  Madagascar  shows  a 
curious  difference  between  the  nomenclature  of  the  coast  and 
that  of  the  interior.  In  the  latter  the  names  are  entirely  native, 
for  no  European  power  has  ever  succeeded  in  establishing  itself 
in  the  country  for  any  lengthened  period ;  but  the  coast  is 
fringed  with  a  variety  of  European  words — English,  French, 


and  Portuguese — as  well  as  with  Malagasy  names.  Thus  we 
find  "  William  Pitt "  Bay,  "  Chatham  "  Island,  and  Port  "  Liver- 
pool," commemorating  the  leading  English  statesmen  of  the  time 
when  the  first  complete  survey  was  made  of  the  coast  by  Capt. 
W.  F.  W.  Owen,  R.N.,  whose  ships'  names  are  also  perpetuated 
in  "  Leven  "  Port  and  "  Barracouta  "  Island.  The  treachery  of 
the  native  population  is  remembered  in  "  Murder  "  and  "  Grave  " 
Islands,  where  some  of  Owen's  crews  were  killed  by  the  people  ; 
English  Admiralty  and  other  officials'  names  were  given  to  Port 
"Croker,"  Point  "  Barrow,"  "  Dartmouth"  River,  Point  "  McClure," 
Dalrymple  "  Bay,  and  "  Barlow "  Island  ;  and  British  surveys 
of  the  western  coast  have  also  left  their  mark  in  "  Barren " 
Isles,  and  in  "Crab,"  "Coffin,"  and  "Sandy"  Islands,  in  the 
Mozambique  Channel  ;  and  at  the  northern  extremity  of 
Madagascar  we  find  "  British "  Sound  (more  properly  Diego 
Suarez  Bay),  with  four  deep  inlets  called  respectively  by 
the  names  of  "English,"  "Welsh,"  "Scotch,"  and  "Irish" 
Bays. 

The  earlier  French  intercourse  is  marked  by  the  names  of 
Fort  Dauphin,  Port  Choiseul,  Foule  Pointe,  and  Louisbourg, 
a  record  of  the  monarchical  times,  nearly  two  centuries  ago, 
when  so  many  disastrous  attempts  were  made  by  the  French 
to  establish  themselves  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  island.^  And 
going  back  further,  to  the  discovery  of  Madagascar  by  Europeans, 
the  maritime  enterprise  of  the  Portuguese  three  hundred  and 
seventy  or  eighty  years  ago  is  marked  indelibly  on  the  map, 
together  with  their  religious  fervour,  by  the  names  of  various 
saints  which  they  gave  to  the  chief  capes  all  round  its  shores — 
St.  Mary,  St  Andrew,  St.  Vincent,  and  St.  Sebastian  2 — as  well 
as  the  Isle  of  St.  Mary,  the  Bay  and  River  of  St.  Augustine,  the 
Bay  of  St.  Luce,  the  Shoal  of  St.  Bonaventura,  the  town  of  St. 

^  In  certain  old  French  maps  Madagascar  was  called  "  He  Dauphine,"  but  this 
name  did  not  obtain  any  permanence. 

=  The  most  northerly  cape  of  ]\fadagascar,  now  known  as  Cape  Ambro  or 
Amber,  was  formerly  called  Cape  Natal,  from  its  being  discovered  on  Christmas 
Day  (_dics  Natal  is  Domini). 


Thomas  (now  called  Tamatave  i),  and  the  name  of  San  Lorenzo, 
by  which  the  island  was  known  for  long  after  its  discovery.2 
Two  or  three  of  their  famous  captains  are  also  kept  in  remem- 
brance in  "  Antongil  "  (Antonio  Gil)  Bay,  "  Diego  Suarez  "  Sound, 
and  "Juan  de  Nova"  Island. 

Going  back  earlier  still,  to  the  Arab  settlements  both  on  the 
south-east  and  north-west  coasts  of  Madagascar,  although  these 
have  left  enduring  traces  of  their  presence  in  the  language  of 
the  Malagasy,  they  do  not  seem,  as  far  at  least  as  our  informa- 
tion at  present  extends,  to  have  affected  the  place-nomenclature 
of  the  country.  The  Arabs  have  given  the  names  used  by  many 
tribes  to  the  days  of  the  week  and  of  the  months,  the  terms 
connected  with  superstition,  witchcraft,  divination,  &c.,  and  words 
employed  in  the  arts  of  civilised  life — dress,  money,  bedding, 
music,  &c. ;  but  their  influence  does  not  appear  to  have  extended 
to  the  names  of  towns  or  geographical  features,  with  two  or  three 
possible  exceptions.3  Thus  the  name  of  the  extensive  lake  of 
Alaotra,  in  the  Antsihanaka  province,  w^hich,  according  to  the 
Rev.  L.  Dahle,  is  probably  the  Arabic  Al-hitat,  "the  dashing  of 
the  waves,"  is  the  same  word  which  is  given  as  a  name  to 
the  Arabs  from  beyond  the  Mozambique  Channel,  who  are 
called  by  the  Malagasy  the  "Talaotra."4 

The  object  of  this  paper  is,  however,  to  call  attention  to  the 
Malagasy  place-names  in  Madagascar ;  to  show  how  they  illus- 
trate the  mental  habits  of  the  people  and  their  powers  of 

^  "  Tamatave  "  is  called  by  the  Malagasy  "  Toamasina,"  probably  a  corruption 
of  "  San  Tomaso." 

-  Mr.  A.  Tacchi  suggests  that  "Antongil"  is  rather  a  corruption  of  "Santa 
Angelo,"  as  nothing  seems  to  be  certainly  known  of  any  "Antonio  Gil."  Xgonts\', 
the  name  of  a  place  on  the  north-west  coast,  is  thought  by  Mr.  Tacchi  to  be  a 
corruption  of  "  Saint  Gontran  "  and  another  word  of  Portuguese  origin. 

3  M.  Grandidier  has,  however,  pointed  out  several  other  names  of  places  on  the 
western  coast  which  he  believes  are  of  Arab  origin,  although  he  does  not  give 
their  meanings  ;  these  are  Kisimany,  Kongony,  Sada,  Mibany,  Kivinja,  Sangoa, 
and  Boinaomary.  I  should  doubt  some  of  these,  which  seem  Malagasy  words  in 
whole  or  in  part. 

In  Dumont  D'Urville's  Vocabiildirc  Madckass-Fraii-^aisc,  alaotr  is  translated 
"au  large." 


112  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

observation  ;  to  point  out  some  few  historical  facts  which  are 
probably  preserved  in  certain  names  ;  and  to  note  a  number  of 
words  of  obscure  or  doubtful  meaning  which  are  embodied  in 
many  of  the  names  of  places,  and  which  are  possibly  relics  of  an 
occupation  of  the  island  anterior  to  the  arrival  of  the  present 
prominent  Malayo-Polynesian  element  in  the  population.  Our 
knowledge  of  the  various  dialects  of  the  Malagasy  language  is 
still  too  fragmentary  and  imperfect  to  allow  of  much  being  done 
at  present  in  the  direction  indicated  in  this  last  point ;  but  one 
chief  result  aimed  at  in  noting  down  here  some  of  these  par- 
ticulars is  to  provoke  inquiry  and  research  on  the  subject. 
Madagascar  will  prove  an  exception  to  almost  every  other 
country  if  a  careful  analysis  of  the  names  of  its  mountains 
and  rivers,  valleys  and  plains,  towns  and  villages,  and  other 
geographical  features,  does  not  throw  some  light  upon  the 
earliest  occupation  of  the  island,  and  the  successive  waves  of 
population  which  have  passed  over  its  surface.  There  are 
several  reasons  for  believing  that  an  earlier  and  less  civilised 
race  than  the  present  inhabitants  once  occupied  the  interior  of 
Madagascar,  and  it  is  possible  that  some  of  the  obscurer  words 
embodied  in  certain  place-names  are  relics  of  this  aboriginal 
people. 

There  is,  unfortunately,  a  peculiarity  in  the  habits  of  the 
Malagasy,  in  common  with  all  the  Polynesian  races,  with  regard 
to  names,  which  introduces  an  element  of  uncertainty  into 
geographical  nomenclature,  viz.,  the  practice  of  tabooing  words 
or  particles  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  names  of 
their  chiefs.  As  all  personal  names  have  some  distinct  meaning, 
and  are  largely  composed  of  commonly-used  nouns,  verbs,  and 
adjectives,  as  well  as  the  names  of  animals,  plants,  &c.,  it  con- 
stantly occurs  that  the  names  of  most  familiar  objects  and 
actions  have  to  be  changed  through  forming  part  of  their 
sovereign's  or  chiefs  names.  From  this  cause,  writes  Mr. 
Hastie,  British  Agent  at  the  Court  of  Radama  I.  (i 8 17-1826), 
"  the  names  of  rivers,  places,  and  things  have  suffered  so  many 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES.  II3 

changes  on  the  western  coast  that  frequent  confusion  occurs  ; 
for,  after  being  prohibited  by  their  chieftains  from  applying  any 
particular  terms  to  the  accustomed  signification,  the  natives  will 
not  acknowledge  to  have  ever  known  them  in  their  former  sense  " 
{Tyerman  and  Bennet's  Voyages,  p.  276,  2nd  ed.).  There  is 
reason  to  believe,  however,  that  this  cause  of  change  and  un- 
certainty applies  much  less  to  the  place-names  of  the  central 
and  eastern  districts  of  the  country,  and  that  the  taboo  (Malag. 
fady)  there  more  affects  the  names  of  objects  and  actions  than 
those  of  places. 

Before  considering  the  names  of  places  in  Madagascar,  a 
word  or  two  may  be  said  about  the  name  of  the  country  itself. 
There  seems  much  reason  to  believe  that  the  word  "  Madagas- 
car "  is  not  a  native  name,  but  is  one  that  has  been  given  it  by 
foreigners.  There  appears  to  be  no  Malagasy  root  in  the  word, 
and  the  combination  of  the  consonants  sc,  or  sk,  is  one  not 
allowed  by  the  genius  of  the  language.  The  island  used  to  be 
termed  by  the  people  Izao  7'ehetra  izao,  "  This  whole,"  in  accord- 
ance with  the  belief  of  many  insular  nations  that  their  own 
island  is  the  principal  part  of  the  world  ;  and  in  the  time  of 
Radama  I.,  and  subsequently,  it  was  also  described  as  Ny 
anivon  ny  rlaka,  "  The  [land]  in  the  midst  of  the  flood." 
According  to  some  accounts,  an  old  designation  of  the  country 
was  Nbsin-dambo,  "  Island  of  wild-boars,"  these  animals  being 
the  largest  wild  creatures  of  the  forests.  The  only  attempt  at 
explaining  the  derivation  of  the  word  "  Madagascar "  which  I 
have  seen  is  that  given  in  one  of  the  earliest  books  upon  the 
island,  a  German  work  published  at  Altenbourg,  in  Meissen,  in 
1609,  ^i^d  entitled  Beschreibung  der  Mechtigen  und  Weitber- 
humbte7i  Insul  Madagascar',  by  Jerome  Megiser,  in  which  it  is 
affirmed  that  the  African  kings  of  Madagascar  and  Adel 
conquered  the  coast  region  of  the  island  ;  that  "  the  inhabitants 
have  also  been  forced  to  swear  to  recognise  no  other  for  their 
king,  and  the  island  also  is  to  be  called  nothing  else  but 
Magadaxo.    This  word  was  afterwards  corrupted  into  Maga- 

9 


114 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


dascar,  and  at  last  became  Madagascar,  which  name  it  kept 
until  the  Portuguese  afterwards  gave  it  another  name,  as  has 
been  mentioned  before."  Whether  or  not  this  contains  any 
historical  fact  it  is  now  difficult  to  decide.^  Besides  the  names 
for  the  island  already  mentioned,  this  German  work  also  gives 
many  others,  most  of  them  applied  by  the  Arabic  geographers, 
one  being  "  The  Island  of  the  Moon "  ;  they  wrote  the  name 
either  Kamar  or  Komr,  the  same  word  which  enters  into  the 
name  of  the  "  Comoro  "  Group,  to  the  north-west  of  Madagascar. 
These  islands  are  called  by  the  Arabs  Komair,  or  the  Lesser 
Komr.  The  name  as  applied  to  the  whole  island  survived  until 
the  arrival  of  the  Portuguese,  for  on  one  of  the  oldest  maps,  the 
Charta  Marina  Portugalensium,  of  the  first  decade  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  the  name  Komortina  occurs  for  the  island  in 
addition  to  those  of  Madagascar  and  San  Lourengo. 

Coming  now  to  the  place-names  in  Madagascar,  we  may  first 
look  at  those  of  Mountains,  the  most  prominent  and  awe-inspiring 
of  all  natural  features,  and  to  which  the  imagination  of  simple 
peoples  soon  affixes  descriptive  epithets.  The  interior  provinces 
of  the  island  (from  which  regions  almost  all  these  illustrations 
are  taken)  constitute  an  extensive  elevated  mountainous  region, 
occupying  rather  more  than  a  third  of  the  total  area  of  the 

^  The  Rev.  Canon  Isaac  Taylor  (author  of  Words  and  Places)  offers  the  follow- 
ing suggestion  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  word  : — 

"  My  guess  is  that  the  name  Madagascar,  which  we  got  from  Marco  Polo,  did 
not  apply  to  the  island,  but  to  the  Somali  coast.  He  got  the  name  from  Malay 
sources.  The  question  is  whether  Mala-gossc  or  Mada-gossc  is  its  earlier  form  ; 
gossc  meant  *  men '  (='  Bantu ')  in  the  old  Swahili.  Ma  (^)  a  gosse  would  be 
Ma(^)a-incii,  the  -ar  being  the  Malay  suffix  in  Zanzib-ar,  Xicoba-^r,  Malab-ar,  &c., 
and  meaning  '  land  '  or  *  island.' 

"  The  Hova  language  is  a  Malay  dialect  ;  '  Malay  '  means  '  mountains.'  Hence 
Mala-gosc-ar  might  be  'The  land  of  the  (^-^^^f)  men,'  while  Mada-gasc-ar  would 
be  'The  island  of  the  Mada  or  Madai  men,'  either  the  present  Madai  tribe  south- 
east of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  or  else  the  land  of  the  coast  people  in  the  present 
Somali  Land,  formerly  called  Madun  or  Madain.  On  this  hypothesis,  Polo's 
name  would  apply  to  the  Somali  Land.  He  describes  Madagascar  as  Moham- 
medan and  full  of  elephants,  plainly  not  the  island. 

"  We  have  another  old  form  in  one  of  the  Polo  MSS.,  Magastcr,  where  the 
would  be  the  Bantu  plural  prefix." 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES.  II5 

country,  and  raised  from  3,000  to  5,000  feet  above  the  sea.  This 
hilly  region  is  composed  of  primary  rocks,  and  the  loftiest  sum- 
mits are  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  basalt.  It  will  be  seen,  however, 
that  one  prominent  descriptive  class  of  names  for  mountains  in 
most  countries  is  wanting  in  these  Malagasy  names  ;  there  are 
none  denoting  the  whiteness  given  by  snow.  Although  the 
highest  points  are  only  a  little  under  9,000  feet  above  the 
sea  level,  this  is  yet,  in  that  part  of  the  tropics,  too  low  for  snow 
to  lie ;  snow  is  indeed  unknown  in  Madagascar,  and  so  there  are 
no  equivalents  in  its  mountain-names  for  the  Snowdon,  Ben 
Nevis,  Snafells,  or  Sierra  Nevada  of  Europe,  or  for  the  Hormus, 
Lebanon,  or  Himalayah  ("  Abode  of  Snow  ")  of  Asiatic  countries. 

It  will  also  be  noticed  that  almost  all  these  mountain-names 
commence  with  the  letters  /  or  A.  The  former  is  merely  a 
particle  (it  might  almost  be  termed  an  article)  which  is  prefixed 
to  denote  place-names,  as  well  as  tribal  and  personal  names. 
The  other  letter  is  part  of  the  preposition  and  demonstrative 
adverb  Any^  contracted  to  An-  (changed  for  euphony  to  Ain- 
before  certain  consonants),  "  at,"  giving  a  localising  sense  to  the 
word  it  precedes.  Further,  it  will  be  also  remarked  that  the 
syllables  following  An-  or  Am-  are,  in  a  great  number  of  cases, 
bohi-y  contracted  from  vbhitra,  a  word  now  usually  taken  as 
meaning  a  "  town,"  and  indeed  forming  the  first  part  of  a  vast 
number  of  Malagasy  town-names.^  But  as  there  are  quite  as 
many  mountains  as  towns  having  Ainbohi-  as  the  first  part  of 
their  names,  it  is  probable  that  vohitra  originally  meant  a  "  hill," 
especially  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  root  of  this  word  is 
the  same  as  that  from  which  a  number  of  words,  such  as  bbhy, 
bbhibbhy  bohitra,  &c.,  are  derived,  all  of  which  have  the  idea  of 
"  swelling,"  "  puffing,"  "  convexity,"  and  "  protuberance."  ^  One 
of  the  grandest  mountains  in  Madagascar,  situated  near  the 

^  Ambohimanga,  "At  the  blue  town"  ;  Ambohidava,  "At  the  long  town  "  ; 
Ambohitrandriana,  "At  the  prince's  town;"  Ambohimanjaka,  "At  the  king's 
town,"  &c.,  &c. 

~  I  am  confirmed  in  this  opinion  by  seeing  that  the  w^ord  used  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula  for  "  hill  "  is  hiikii^  no  doubt  the  same  word  as  vohitra. \ 


Il6  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

northern  extremity  of  the  island,  is  called  Ambohitra  and  is 
said  to  be  more  than  6,000  feet  high.  The  usual  word  for  moun- 
tain, tendrombohitra,  i.e.,  "  point  of  the  town  "  or  "  hill,"  also  con- 
firms this  ;  the  old  towns  in  the  centre  of  the  island  were  always 
built  for  security  on  the  tops  of  hills,  so  that  the  names  of  hill 
and  town  seem  quite  interchangeable. ^ 

Before  proceeding  to  point  out  some  of  the  most  interesting 
characteristics  of  Malagasy  place-names,  I  will  venture  to  trans- 
late a  rather  long  extract  from  an  essay  by  M.  Alfred  Grandidier 
on  this  subject,  which  forms  an  appendix  to  the  volume  treating 
of  the  Historical  Geography  of  the  island  (vol.  i.),  forming  part 
of  his  monumental  work  Histoire  Physique,  Naturelle  et  Politique 
de  Madagascar  (Paris  :  1892).    M.  Grandidier  says  : 

"  At  a  first  glance  at  a  list  of  Malagasy  place-names,  one  is 
struck  by  the  fact  that  a  larger  number,  more  than  half  of  them, 
commence  with  the  syllable  Am  or  An,  which  is  combined  with 
one,  two,  and  sometimes  even  three  words,  the  sum  of  which 
very  often  describes,  as  we  are  about  to  show,  some  peculiarity 
characteristic  of  the  place.  This  syllable  Am  or  An  is  a  con- 
traction of  the  demonstrative  adverb  Any,  which  signifies 
where  there  is^  zuhere  one  is  found,  near  to,  upon.  The  first  word 
which  comes  after  this  adverb  is  usually  one  of  the  following  : 
bbhi,  bdto,  bbdi,  ala,  kazo,  tana,  tsaha,  drdno,  pdsi,  bdla,  kadi,  kdra, 
or  ddka,  but  the  most  frequent  of  all  these  is  the  first ;  about  a 
quarter  of  these  place-names  in  fact  begin  with  Ambohi,  which 
is  a  contraction  of  Any  vohitra,  lit,  'Where  there  is  the  moun- 
tain which Where  there  is  the  village  which '  .  .  .  Then 
come,  approximately  in  the  order  of  frequency  :  Ambato  (from 
Any  vdto,  lit,  'Where  there  is  a  rock  which'  .  .  .) ;  Ambodi 
(from  Any  vbdy,  lit,  '  At  the  foot  of  .  .  .)  ;  Anala  (from  Any 
dla,  lit.,  '  Where  there  is  the  forest  which '...);  Ankazo  (from 
Any  hdzo,  lit,  '  Where  the  trees  are '...);  Antana  (from  Any 
tanana,  lit,  'Where  there  is  the  village  which'  .  .  .) ;  Antsaha 

^  a  hill  is  havbana,  lit  a  "height. 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES. 


117 


(from  Any  saha,  lit,  '  Where  there  is  the  valley,  the  water-course, 
which'  .  .  .)  i  Andrano  (from  Any  rano,  lit,  'Where  the  water 
is'  ,  .  .);  Ampasi  (from  Any  fasika  [Hova],  fasy  or  fasina 
[prov.],  lit,  'Where  the  sand  is  '  .  .  .)  ;  Ambala  (from  Any  vdla, 
lit,  '  Where  there  is  an  enclosure,  a  compound  '...);  Ankadi 
(from  Anyhddy^  lit,  'Where  there  is  a  fosse,  a  trench  which' . . .)  ; 
Ankara  (from  Any  hdrana,  lit,  '  Where  there  is  a  rock 
which'  .  .  .);  &c. 

"This  first  syllable  Am,  An,  And,  Ant  often  disappears,  and 
in  this  case  the  meaning  of  the  name  slightly  changes ;  one  may, 
in  fact,  say  indifferently  Ambohibe  and  VOHIBE  (which  signify 
respectively  :  At  the  great  mountain,  and  The  great  mountain^  ; 
Analasora  (  Where  there  is  the  wood  of  hedgehogs)  and  Ala- 
SORA  {The  wood  of  hedgehogs) ;  Andranomamy  {Near  the  sweet 
water)  and  Ranomamy  {The  sweet  water)  \  Antsahaondry 
{In  the  valley  of  sheep) ;  Ampasimena  {On  the  red  sand)  and 
Fasimena  ( The  red  sand)  ;  A]MBALANOSY  (  Where  there  is  an 
enclosure  for  goats)  and  Valanosy  ( The  enclosure  for  goats)  ; 
Ankadivory  {Where  there  is  a  circular  fosse)  and  Hadivory 
{The  circular  fosse)  ;  Ankaranandriana  {Near  the  rock  of  the 
noble)  and  Haranandrl\N A  ( The  rock  of  the  noble),  &c.  But 
in  the  second  form  of  these  names,  the  Malagasy  often  prefix  to 
the  word  the  article  denoting  a  proper  name,  which  is  a  simple  I, 
and  they  say;  IVOHIBE,  lALASORA,  IFASIMENA,  IVALANOSY, 

Iharanandriana,  &C. 

"  Leaving  out  of  consideration,  amongst  the  words  which 
commence  with  any  other  letter  than  A,  those  whose  initial 
root  is  VOHI,  VATO,  YODI,  HAZO,  ALA,  TANA,  SAHA,  RANO,  FASI, 
VALA,  HARA,  or  IHARA,  and  which,  as  we  have  said,  are  to  some 
extent  identical  with  those  which  have  the  prefix,  we  find  that 
the  greater  number  commence  with  Be-  (large,  numerous), 
Fara-  (the  last),  Maha-  (that  which  is  able  to  .  .  .,  which  is 
proper  to  .  .  .,  which  becomes  .  .  .),  ]\lAN-  (a  verbal  prefix 
which,  joined  to  the  root,  forms  the  verbs),  Manjaka-  (he  who 
reigns,  who  governs),  Maro-  (much  of  .  .  .),  NOSI-  (island), 


Ii8 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


Sara-  (?),  Saro-  (by  contraction  from  Sarotra,  difficult, 
dangerous,  dear),  SOA-  or  TsARA-  (beautiful,  good,  pleasant), 
Tsi  (that  which  is  not,  or  which  has  not  .  .  .),  TsiAFAK-  (that 
which  cannot  be  attained  by  .  .  .  ),  ViNAN-  (the  mouth  of  a 
river),  &c.  All  these  words  are  often  preceded  by  an  I,  which 
is,  as  we  have  observed,  the  article  denoting  a  proper  name  ; 
thus,  Imanakana,  Inosifito,  Ivinanimalaza,  are  the  same  names 
as  Manakona,  Nosifito,  Vinanimalaza." 

As  might  be  supposed,  the  idea  of  height  and  prominence  is  one 
of  the  most  frequently  occurring  in  mountain-names  in  Mada- 
gascar. Thus  we  find  several  called  Angavo,  "  The  lofty,"  and 
one  of  thejgrandest  mountains  in  eastern  Imerina  is  Angavokely, 
"  Little-\o{X.y I'  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Angavo  which  forms  a 
magnificent  tower  or  outwork,  so  to  speak,  of  the  mountain  wall 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  upper  plateau.  There  is  also  Avoma- 
sina,  the  "  Sacred-high  "  (place)  ;  and  one  of  the  loftiest  peaks  in 
the  Vavavato  district  in  southern  Imerina  is  lavohaika,  "  The- 
lofty-defying-one,"  a  mountain  nearly  7,000  feet  high.  The 
word  ambbny,  "  above,"  also  occurs  in  several  names,  as  Ambo- 
niloha,  "  Overhead,"  Ambonivohitra,  "  Above-the-town"  (or  hill)  ; 
as  well  as  "head,"  in  lavoloha,  "Lofty-headed,"  Lohavohitra, 
"  Head-of-the-hill  "  (or  town),  one  of  the  highest  mountains  in 
Vonizongo.  Asandratra,  "raised,"  "exalted,"  forms  part  of  several 
names,  as  Nasandratany ;  as  also  does  arina  "  set  up,"  "  lifted 
up,"  in  such  words  as  Ambohimiarina.  There  are  numerous 
mountain-names  in  which  the  root  ringy,  meaning  "  loftiness," 
"  conspicuousness,"  comes  in  ;  thus  we  find  Andringiringy, 
Mahakiringy,  and  Andringitra,  a  very  prominent  ridge  fourteen 
miles  north  of  the  capital,  and  closely  connected  with  the  old 
idolatry ;  a  cave  in  its  steep  southern  slopes  being  a  Malagasy 
Delphi,  the  former  abode  of  the  god  Ranakandriana.  The  same 
meaning  of  height  and  eminence  is  found  in  Milangana  (from 
the  root  langa,  "  tall,  lofty "),  a  lofty  point  north  of  the  old 
capital  Ambohimanga.    Much  the  same  idea  is  implied  in  the 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES.  Hp 

root  ranga  "  having,  the  ears  erect,"  a  word  applied  to  animals, 
and  found  in  the  name  '  Andrangaranga.' "  The  commanding 
position  of  some  eight  or  ten  Imerina  hills  is  implied  in  their 
name  Mahatsinjo,  "  Able-to-gaze "  (from),  tsinjo  being  a  word 
meaning  to  look  at  distant  objects.^  From  an  almost  exactly- 
synonymous  root,  tazana,  comes  the  name  of  another  mountain, 
Fitazanana,  "  The  Outlook."  The  sharply-pointed  peaks  of 
some  hills,  again,  have  suggested  the  idea  of  a  "  spur  "  2  (Mai. 
fantsy),  which  is  accordingly  given  to  some  of  them  ;  while 
another  is  called  Ambohimaranitra,  "  Sharp-hill "  ;  another  is 
Antendro,  "  At-the-point  "  ;  and  others  are  Itsiloabo,  "  Lofty- 
thorn,"  and  Ivatotsilo,  "  Thorn-rock."  One  mountain  name, 
Madiotandroka,  "  Clean-horn,"  reminds  one  of  the  Matterhorn 
and  Schreckhorn,  &c.,  of  the  Alps. 

Height  of  course  involves  some  degree  of  mystery  and  di-ead^ 
which  ideas  are  accordingly  embodied  in  several  mountain- 
names.  Thus  we  find  Ambohijanahary,  "  God's-hill,"  in  several 
districts  ;  the  word  Zanahary  (Creator)  being  vaguely  applied 
by  the  Malagasy  to  many  things  which  they  cannot  understand ; 
as  is  also  the  other  word  for  God,  Andriamanitra,  as  in  Andria- 
manitravato,  "  God's-rock,"  and  Ambohitrandriamanitra,  "  God's- 
hill  "  (or  town).  Of  names  of  this  class  are  Imanondrolanitra 
"  Sky-pointing,"  and  Itsiandanitra,  *'  Not-in-the-sky."  A  moun- 
tain in  the  Tanala  (forest)  region  is  the  Malagasy  Hades,  the 
caves  in  it  being  supposed  to  be  the  dwellings  of  departed 
spirits,  and  is  called  Iratsy  (or  Iraty),  "  The-evil-place."  The  few 
Europeans  who  have  ascended  the  peaks  of  Ankaratra,  the 
highest  mountain-mass  in  the  island,  have  described  the  great 
reluctance  of  the  natives  to  accompany  them,  and  their  terror  of 
some  supposed  malignant  influence  on  those  lofty  summits. 
Zdvona,  "  mist,"  enters  into  the  composition  of  several  mountain- 
names,  as  Ibezavona,  "Much-mist,"  Ifotsizavona,  "Mist-whitened," 

^  A  hill  from  which  the  Imamo  district  can  be  surveyed  is  called  Mahatsinjo- 
imamo,  i.e.,  "  Able-to-look-over-Imamo." 

-  Also  found  in  reduplicate  form,  as  Ampantsifants}'. 


120 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


and  Manelozavona,  "  Mist-shaded  "  (?),  and  Tsiafajavona,  "  Not- 
free-from-mist,"  the  name  of  one  of  the  highest  peaks  of  Anka- 
ratra.  Inaccessibility  is  involved  in  several  other  names ;  as 
Tsiafabalala,  Tsiafakalika,  and  Tsiafakafo  (another  Ankaratra 
peak),  which  three  names  mean  respectively  "  Impassable  by  a 
locust,"  "  by  a  dog,"  and  "  by  fire."  Almost  exactly  the  same 
meaning  is  giving  in  the  names  Tsiazomborona,  Tsiazonamboa, 
and  Tsiazompapango,  which  mean  "  Unattainable  by  a  bird," 
"  by  a  dog,"  and  "  by  a  hawk."  The  sharp  cutting  wind  of  these 
elevated  points  gives  a  name  to  one  hill,  Sarodrivotra,  "  Difficult 
(through)  wind  "  ;  while  the  variety  of  blasts  has  probably  sug- 
gested another  name,£.Imarorivotra, "  Many-winds."  Possibly  the 
howling  of  the  wind  round  the  top  gives  the  name  of  another 
hill,  Ambohimitrena,  "  Bellowing-hill." 

Somewhat  poetical  names  occur  in  Ambohijanamasoandro, 
"  Hill-of-children-of-the-Sun,"  in  Fonovaratra,  "  Thunderbolt- 
covering,"  in  Tompombohitra,  "  Lord-of-the-hills,"  in  Andria- 
nambo,  "  King-of-the-heights  "  (or  "  Kingly-height "),  and  in 
Malakialina,  "  Quickly-night,"  the  name  of  a  hill  north  of  Ambo- 
himanga,  whose  height  causes  a  deep  gorge  to  the  east  of  it  to 
be  soon  in  darkness  after  sundown. 

As  height  also  involves  size^  the  word  be,  "  big,"  is  found  in 
many  names,  as  Ambohibe  and  Ivohibe,  "  Big-mountain,"  Anta- 
nambe,  "  Big-town,"  Mangabe,  "  Big-blue  "  (probably  referring  to 
the  colour  of  the  basalt  rock),  Ivatobe,  "  Big-rock,"  and  Bongabe, 
"  Big-hill."  The  first  part  of  the  last-named  word  also  enters 
into  several  hill-names  ;  it  means  a  clod,  a  turf,  and  also  a  round 
hill,  so  we  find  Bonga,  Bongabe,  and  Bongakely,  i.e.,  hills,  big 
and  little.1 

It  has  already  been  noticed  that  the  primary  rocks  form  most 
of  the  highest  points  of  Madagascar,  and  the  word  vcito  (euphoni- 
ously changed  after  am-  to  batd),  "  stone,"  is  therefore  a  very  fre- 

^  Probably  the  same  idea  of  rounded  convexity  comes  in,  somewhat  indelicately 
to  our  English  notions,  in  Bevohoka,  "  Pregnant  "  (lit.,  "  Large-wombed  "),  and 
Kitroka,  "  Belly,"  both  names  of  hills  in  Imerina. 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES. 


121 


quently  occurring  one  in  these  mountain-names,  and  in  one 
connection  or  another  forms  part  of  about  a  fourth  of  all  the 
names  of  hills  in  which  natural  features  are  referred  to.  Thus 
we  find  it  in  its  simplest  forms  of  Ambato  and  Ivato,  and  then 
in  combination  with  the  words  for  the  colours  blue,  black,  white, 
red,  and  speckled,  as  Ambatomanga,  Ambatomainty,  Ambato- 
fotsy,  Ambatomena,  and  Ambatovandana ;  with  those  for  size — 
little,  big,  and  immense,  as  Ambatokely,  x^mbatobe,  and  Amba- 
tovaventy  ;  and  with  those  for  height,  length,  roundness,  steep- 
ness, bareness  (lit.,  "  baldness  "),  and  wooded  outline  (lit.,  "  hairi- 
ness"), as  Ambatoavo,  Ambatolava,  Ambatovory,  Ambatomi- 
hantona,  Ambatos61a,i  and  Ambatovaloina.  Besides  these  are 
King's-stones,  Prince's-stones,  many  Famous-stones,  as  well  as 
some  Level-topped-stones,  Sharply-pointed  stones,  and  Double- 
peaked-stones.2  Some  hills  which  terminate  in  a  solitary 
column  of  rock,  have  the  same  name  as  that  given  to  the 
memorial  erected  stones,  so  common  in  Central  Madagascar, 
Vatolahy  (lit,  "  Male-stone  ")  ;  one  with  a  double-head  is  called 
Baka,  that  is,  V-shaped,  a  term  applied  to  the  horns  of  cattle ; 
others,  with  three  points,  are  the  "Three-sisters'-rock" — Ambato- 
telomirahavavy  (a  hill  with  a  grand  mass  of  rock  of  this  name  is 
conspicuous  near  the  eastern  edge  of  Imerina,  and  looks  from 
some  points  like  a  Titanic  cathedral)  ;  while  others  again  are 
the  "  Three-men-rock  "  (Ambatotelolahy) ;  and  one  is  called 
Ambatomandrindry,  probably  from  a  root  meaning  "  thickly 
studded,"  here,  of  course,  with  boulder  rocks.  Others,  solitarily 
conspicuous,  are  called  Ambatotokana,  "  Separated-stone  "  ;  and 
the  idea  of  an  upright  column  gives  another  name,  Mahitsy, 
"  Straight "  or  "  Upright "  ;  and  we  also  find  Antanjombato, 
"  Rocky  promontory."  A  very  remarkable  rocky  region  south- 
west of  Ankaratra  is  termed  Vavavato,  "  Stone-mouth  "  ;  another 
hill  is  Ambatofidirana,  "  Entrance-stone,"  while  both  in  Northern 

*  Also  simply  as  Antsola,  "  Bald-one." 

^  Ambatomanjaka,  Ambatonandriana,  Ambatomalaza,  Ambatomarina,  Ambato- 
fisaka,  Ambatosampana. 


122  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Imerina  and  in  Southern  Betsileo  are  Varavarambato,  "  Stone- 
gateway,"  names  given  to  mountain-passes  in  those  provinces. 
But  it  would  be  tedious  to  particularise  all  the  varied  combina- 
tions into  which  vato  enters  in  Malagasy  mountain-names,  the 
more  so  as  many  are  now  obscure  in  meaning.^ 

Another  word  for  rock,  harana,  is  also  found  in  many  names 
for  hills.  Ankarana  is  the  name  of  the  most  northerly  province 
in  the  island,  and  is  so  called  on  account  of  its  famous  rocky 
fastness  (see  Antan.  Annual,  No.  III.  p.  27) ;  and  this  word  is 
probably  the  root  of  the  word  Ankaratra,  the  name,  as  already 
mentioned,  of  the  loftiest  mountain-mass  in  Madagascar .  We 
also  find  Haranambe,  "  Big-rock,"  Ankarankely,  "  Little-rock," 
Iharana,  Iharanarivo,  "  Thousand-rocks,"  Ankaramena,  "  Red- 
rock,"  Iharanandriana,  "  Prince's-rock,"  Ankaramaina  and 
Iharandava,  "  Dry-rock  "  and  "  Long-rock,"  and  several  names 
include  both  the  words  for  stone  and  rock,  as  Ambatoharanana . 

While  mountain  summits  in  Central  Madagascar  are  usually 
of  bare  rock,  here  and  there  their  names  show  that  wood,  more 
or  less  extensive,  once  covered  their  heights,  and  in  many  names 
dla,  "  forest,"  comes  into  combination.  Thus  we  find  lalaroa, 
"  Two-woods,"  Analabe,  "  Great-wood,"  Ivohialabe,  "  Hill-of- 
much-wood,"  Analamanantona,  "  Hanging-wood,"  Analamira- 
viravy,  "  Overhanging-wood,"  Analamanara,  "  Cold-wood,"  Ana- 
lamahitsy,  "  Upright-wood,"  Analambano,  "  Heron's-wood," 
Analambato,  and  also  Isomotra,  "  Beard,"  probably  a  fanciful 
allusion  to  woods ;  and  several  others,  including  words  of 
obscure  meaning.  Hazo,  "tree,"  also  occurs  in  several  hill- 
names,  as  Ankazotokana,  "  Solitary-tree,"  Ankazobe,  "  Big-tree," 
and  Ankazomirohitra  (perhaps  miroh^^tra,  which  would  mean 
"  a  company  of  trees  ").  The  names  of  separate  trees  or  grasses 
distinguish  other  hills,  as  Amberobe  {vero  is  a  long  grass), 
Inatobe,  "  Much-nato,"  the  name  of  a  tree  whose  bark  yields  a 
red  dye,  Ambolobe,  "  Much-bamboo,"  Ivoara,  "  Fig-tree,"  and 

^  One  of  the  tribal  divisions  of  the  Hova  Malagasy  bears  the  name  of  Mand'ia- 
valo,  "  Treaders-of-the-rock." 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES.  I23 

Ambiaty,  the  name  of  a  shrub.  Vdiy,  "  rice,"  and  fdry,  "  sugar- 
cane," also  occur  in  the  names  of  three  or  four  hills  ;  Ambo- 
hibary  is  a  very  lofty  mountain  in  S.  Betsileo  ;  and  we  also 
find  Tamponketsa,  "  Summit-of-rice-ground,"  and  Antsahafary, 
"  Sugar-cane-field."  The  fragrant  grasses  found  in  many 
places  have  suggested  names  for  several  hills,  the  word 
mdnitra,  "  fragrant,"  forming  parts  of  the  following :  Isaha- 
manitra,  Ivohimanitra,  and  Avomanitra.  A  beautifully  wooded 
mountain  in  the  Anativolo  ^  district  is  called  Vohilena,  "  Wet- 
hill  "  (?),  probably  from  the  moisture  attracted  by  its  numerous 
trees. 

The  generally  waterless  character  of  the  hills  is,  however, 
indicated  in  several  of  their  names,  as  Andranoritra,  "  Dried-up- 
water,"  Fasina,  "  Sand,"  Ampasimavo,  "  Brown-sand,"  Vovotany, 
"  Earth-dust "  ;  while  some  others,  which  have  lakes  and  springs 
as  the  source  of  rivers,  are  called  Andranofito,  "  Seven-streams," 
Imarorano,  "  Many- waters,"  Masinony,  "  Sacred  (or  salt)  river," 
Fanhilava,  "  Long-lake,"  and  Manjarano,  perhaps,  "  Dun- 
(coloured-)water "  (this  is  also  the  word  for  plumbago).  One 
hill  is  called  Anivonirano,  "  In-the-midst-of-waters." 

The  pleasant  situation  and  pure  air  of  many  hills  is  recog- 
nized in  their  names,  as  Ambohitsara,  "Good-"  and  Ambohi- 
tsarabe,  "Exceedingly-good-hill,"  Ambohitsoa,  "Pleasant-hill"  (a 
frequent  name),  Nosifaly,  "  Joyful-island,"  Nosisoa,  "  Pleasant- 
island,"  Bemasoandro,  "  Much-sun,"  and  Tokotanitsara,  "  Good- 
settlement  "  ;  while  the  steep  ascents  and  difficulty  of  climbing 
to  their  tops  are  shown  in  the  names  of  others,  as  Mahake- 
traka,  "Disheartening,"  and  Mahareraka,  "Exhausting."  The 
deep  hddy  or  fosses  with  which  many  hills  are  scored,  and  dug 
as  defences  for  the  town  on  the  summit,  give  in  various  combi- 
nations several  names,  as  Ankadivory, "  Circular-fosse,"  Ankadibe, 
"Big-fosse,"  Ankadifotsy,  "White-fosse,"  Ihadimanga,  "Blue- 
fosse,"  &c.  So  also  the  word  vdla,  an  inclosure,  is  a  part  of  a 
few  hill-names,  as  Ambalahirana  and  Ambalafasana,  although  it 
^  /.6'.,  "  Amongst-the-bamboos." 


124 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


is  more  strictly  and  frequently,  as  might  be  supposed,  a  town- 
name. 

From  a  large  number  of  extinct  volcanic  cones  in  the 
interior  provinces  of  Madagascar,  extending  probably  almost  in 
an  unbroken  line  from  the  south  to  the  north  and  north-west, 
one  might  suppose  that  in  the  names  of  some  of  them  at  least 
we  should  find  some  reference  to  fire  or  heat  I  can,  however, 
find  only  two  or  three  instances  where  possibly  some  remem- 
brance of  igneous  forces  is  preserved,  viz.,  in  Ambatomay, 
"  Burnt-rock,"  and  lamboafo,  "  Lofty-fire,"  the  names  of  two 
mountains  in  the  Tanala  province,  and  in  another  named 
Kitroka,  a  word  which  means  "  lava." 

A  considerable  number  of  mountains  are  designated  after  the 
names  of  Animals  and  Birds.  Most  numerous  are  those  called 
after  the  guinea-fowl,  akdnga,  there  being  probably  at  least 
a  dozen  named  Ambatonakanga,  "  Stone-of-the-guinea-fowl." 
Then  come  several  called  after  the  cock,  Ambohitrakoholahy  ; 
the  large  hawk,  Ambatomboromahery ;  the  kestrel,  Ikitsikitsika; 
the  kite,  Masiapapango,  i.e.^  "  Fierce-with-kites "  ;  the  dove, 
Ambohiboromailala ;  the  cardinal-bird,  Ifody ;  the  peacock, 
Vorombola ;  and  there  is  one  called  "  Feather,"  Volomborona. 
(As  already  mentioned  also  in  speaking  of  names  denoting 
height,  there  are  numerous  hills  called  "Impassable"  by  birds 
hawks,  kites,  &c.)  The  largest  and  most  valuable  animal  of  the 
country,  the  humped  ox,  bmhy^  gives  names  to  a  good  many 
hills  ;  in  its  simplest  form,  Ambohitromby,  "  Ox-hill,"  and 
Ambohitrombalahy,  "  Bull-hill,"  and  in  Andraokomby,  "  Licked- 
up-by-oxen,"  Antandrokomby,  "  Ox-horn,"  Antrafonomby,  "Ox- 
hump,"  and  in  Ambohimanoto,  "  Butting-hill."  The  words  for 
sheep  {pndry),  goat  {hsy\  and  wild-hog  {Ictmbd),  are  found  in 
several  hill-names  ;  as  Ambatonondrilahy,  Antsahanondry, 
Ambohitrondry,  Ambatonosy,  and  Lohalambo,  "  Hog's-head." 
Even  the  crocodile  also  appears  in  these  mountain-names,  as  in 
Mamba,  although,  as  might  be  supposed,  it  is  more  frequently 
found  in  river-names  ;  and  also  the  hedgehog,  in  Ambohitsokina. 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES.  1 25 

We  also  find  "  Many-rats,"  Marovoalavo  ;  "  Many-fleas,"  Maro- 
parasy  (a  rather  frequent  and  uncomfortably  appropriate  name 
for  many  villages) ;  "  Many-ants,"  Marovitsika ;  and  two  or 
three  "  Honey-hills,"  Ambohitantely. 

A  smaller  number  of  mountains  have  received  names 
which  may  almost  be  termed  Personal,  and  are  derived  either 
from  some  renowned  king  or  chief,  or  have  some  obscure  refer- 
ence to  people,  their  numbers,  relationships,  &c.  Thus  we  find 
the  "  mountains  "  of  Ratrimo,  Rasomotra,  Razaka  and  Rafilo  ; 
the  "cattle-fold"  (fahitrd)  of  Andriamandroso;  and  the  "hill "  of 
the  renowned  chief  who  founded  the  Hova  monarchy  and 
supremacy,  in  the  unconscionably  long  name  of  ^bng-a^xandrian- 
impbinimerina  !  The  name  of  the  supposed  aboriginal  tribe  of 
the  interior  is  contained  in  SodiVazhnba,  and  that  of  the  Hovas 
in  Famohilan/^^7z;^2.  An  Oriental  exaggeration  of  numbers  comes 
in  in  Ambohitrarivobe,  "  Hill-of-many-thousands,"  and  in 
Ambohipoloalina,  "  Hill-of-ten-ten-thousands  "  ;  we  find  also 
"  People's-hill,"  "  Son-of-men's-hill,"  "  Hill-of-the-old,"  "Slave's- 
hill,"  "  Prince's-hill,"  "  King's-hill  "  (in  Manjakabe,  "  Great-king," 
simply)  ;  and  the  hills  of  the  "  Good-father,"  the  "  Grandchild," 
and  of  "  Sacred-chanting "  ( Ambohimirary).  Two  or  three 
Imerina  hills  have  a  strictly  personal  name,  as  Ramanarivo  and 
Rantoandro. 

A  very  numerous  class  of  mountain-names  I  have  grouped 
as  of  doubtful  signification,  meaning  thereby  not  that  the  words 
themselves  are  obscure  in  meaning,  but  that  the  reason  for 
giving  such  names  is  doubtful.  They  comprise  verbs,  adjectives, 
and  nouns,  and  while  in  some  cases  an  examination  of  the 
particular  hill,  or  inquiry  among  the  nearest  inhabitants,  might 
very  likely  afford  some  clue  to  the  origin  of  the  name  given,  in 
many  cases  the  reason  is  probably  hopelessly  lost.  A  few 
examples  may  now  be  given  ;  and  of  nouns  used  as  names 
we  find  the  following  :  Anjomba,  "  Conch-shell,"  Ambohibola, 
"  Money-hill,"  Amperifery,  "  Pepper-place,"  Betongotra,  "  Big- 
footed,"  Antemitra,  "  Matted,"  Sompitra,  "  Rice-basket,"  Vinany 


126 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


"  A  Guess,"  Ambilany,  "  At-the-pot,"  Ambohimizana,  "  Money- 
scales-hill,"  Ankafotra,  "  At-the-hafotra "  (tree),  Laona,  "Rice- 
mortar,"  &c. 

Of  adjectives  employed  as  hill-names  there  are  only  a  few, 
as  Mangidy,  "  Bitter,"  Mora,  "  Easy,"  and  Maneva,  "  Beautiful  "  ; 
but  a  large  number  of  verbs  are  used  as  hill-names ;  e.g., 
Ambohitsimioza,  "  Not-bathing-hill,"  Manana,  "  Having,"  Ambo- 
himanahy,  "  Disquieting-hill,"  Ambohimanoa,  "  Tribute-paying- 
hill,"  Ambohimahalala,  "  Knowing-hill,"  Mahasarotra,  "  Making- 
difficult,"  Ambohimandray,  "Receiving-hill,"  Ambohitsileo, 
"  Unconquered  hill,"  Manadala,  "  Making-foolish,"  Manalalondo, 
(perhaps)  "  Throwing-off-drowsiness,"  and  Mahasoa,  "  Benefit- 
ing." A  curious  name  occurs  in  Mantsihoaiza,  which  is, 
literally,  "Say,  where  to?" 

It  will  be  thus  seen  from  these  examples,  from  a  few  groups 
of  Madagascar  mountain-names,  chiefly  taken  in  the  centre  of 
the  island,  that  there  is  much  variety  in  them  ;  and  that  some 
of  them  give  evidence  of  considerable  imaginative  power  on 
the  part  of  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  country.  I  do  not 
here  attempt  to  speculate  on  the  facts  possibly  embodied 
(fossilised,  so  to  speak)  in  another  large  group  of  names  whose 
meanings  are  obscure,  and  which  may  probably  in  some  cases 
prove  to  be  archaic  words,  and  may  in  others  preserve  obsolete 
forms  of  the  verbs  and  other  parts  of  speech. 

The  i^/jy^r-names  in  Madagascar  next  claim  a  little  notice, 
although  they  are  less  striking  in  their  descriptive  character 
than  we  have  seen  the  hill-names  to  be.  A  glance  at  a  map 
of  the  island  shows  that  the  largest  rivers  flow  to  the  west, 
the  water-shed  being  comparatively  near  the  eastern  coast,  so 
that,  except  the  Mangoro,  few  very  large  rivers  flow  into  the 
Indian  Ocean  ;  but  there  are  a  great  number  of  small  streams, 
many  of  which  have  cut  deep  gorges  in  the  chains  of  hills,  and 
are  broken  by  numerous  cataracts  and  falls.  Two  words  are 
used  for  "  river "  in  Malagasy :  renirdno,  which  is  literally 
"  mother  of  waters,"  and  ony,  a  word  which,  it  will  be  seen,  is 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES. 


127 


frequently  combined  with  others  in  forming  river-names.  (This 
latter  word  is  Malayan  in  origin,  and  is  the  same  as  the  Malayan 
siignie,  a  river ;  s  being  in  both  languages  a  very  loose  noun 
prefix  ;  ti  is  the  Malagasy  0 ;  and  the  coast  n  is  nasal  and  equal 
to  gn.) 

Descriptive  epithets  of  natural  features  are  of  course  found 
in  a  good  many  river-names,  as  in  Onibe  and  Onive,  "  Big- 
river,"  Andranobe,  "  Much-water,"  Lempona,  "  Concave  "  or 
"  Hollow,"  Ampontany,  "  In-the-heart-of-the-land,"  Ampiva- 
lanana,  "  At -the -descending  "  (water),  and  Andranomavo, 
"  Brown  -  water."  We  also  find  Onimainty  and  Onifotsy, 
"Black-river"  and  "White-river,"  Onilahy,  "Male-river,"  and 
Imaintinandro,  "  Black-by-the-day "  (?).  The  power  of  some 
small  streams  when  swelled  by  sudden  and  heavy  rain  is 
noticed  in  such  names  as  Kelimahery,  "  Little-(but)  strong," 
Kelilalina,  "  Little-(but)  deep  "  ;  the  difficulty  of  fording  them 
in  Fitamalaina,  "  Unwilling-ford  "  ;  the  noisy  character  of  some, 
in  Andriamamovoka,  "  Dust-raising-prince "  (probably  alluding 
to  the  spray  or  mist  caused  by  the  rapids  or  falls) ;  the  broken 
channels  of  others  in  Imanandriana,  "  Having-cataracts,"  while 
another  bears  the  ominous  name  of  Matiandrano,  i.e. 
"  Drowned."  The  largest  river  in  ^Madagascar  is  the  Mania, 
a  word  meaning  "  To  go  astray,"  and  called  in  the  lower 
portion  of  its  course  Tsiribihina,  i.e.  "  The  unfordable,"  so  it 
is  said,  but  probably  meaning  "  The  impassable."  Of  this 
river  Capt.  Larsen,  of  the  Norwegian  mission-ship,  says  he 
believes  that  it  brings  down  more  fresh  water  than  the 
Ganges  ;  at  its  mouth  the  sea  is  fresh  three  miles  from  land. 
The  meaning  of  Betsiboka,  the  large  river  flowing  from  Imerina 
to  the  north-west,  is  "  Much-fresh-water,"  as  its  waters  are  still 
potable  at  a  mile's  distance  from  its  outlet. 

The  names  of  Animals  are  applied  to  a  few  Madagascar 
rivers,  as  in  Mamba,  "  Crocodile  "  (almost  every  river  swarms 
with  these  reptiles),  Ombifotsy,  "White-ox,"  Amborompotsy, 
"  At-the-White-bird  "  (an  egret),  Antanandambo,  "  Wild-hog's- 


128 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


foot  "  (lit,  "  hand  "),  Sahalambo,  "  Wild-hog's-field,"  and  Sahan- 
amalona,  "  Eel's-field."  This  word  saha,  "  field,"  is  found  in 
some  other  river-names,  as  Sahasarotra,  "  Difficult-field,"  Saha- 
omby,  "Spacious-(?)  field,"  or  perhaps  "Ox-field,"  and  Isahanonja, 
"The-field-  (or  place)  of-waves"  ;  also  Sahafilo,_;?^^"  needle," 
or  possibly  filao,  name  of  a  fish. 

Ambato,  "  At-the-stone,"  is  found  in  several  river-names,  as 
well  as  in  those  (as  already  seen)  of  mountains  and  towns ; 
in  these  cases  it  probably  refers  to  some  hill  or  rock  where  the 
stream  takes  its  rise  or  near  which  it  flows,  or  possibly  from 
its  rock-impeded  channel.  Thus  we  find,  Ambatolampy,  "  At- 
the-rock,"  Ambatomiady,  "  At-the-fighting-stone,"  Ambato- 
mainty,  "  At-the-black-stone,"  and  Ambatotsipahina,  "  At-the- 
kicked-stone  "  (probably  with  some  reference  to  giant  legends). 
One  river  is  called  Ankazotsipihina,  "  At-the-ruled-(or  straight- 
ened) tree,"  another  is  called  Fantara,  a  name  also  given  to 
meteoric  stones,  and  another  is  Varahina,  "  Copper." 

As  with  mountains,  so  also  a  few  rivers  have  names  referring 
to  persons  ;  two  or  three  have  the  personal  prefix  Andrian-,  as 
Andriambilany,  and  Andriamenakely,  "  Prince-of-the-estate." 
One  is  curiously  called  Ikotoratsy,  "  Bad-boy,"  another,  Zana- 
kolona,  "  Son-of-men,"  and  another,  Andranonandriana, "  At-the- 
prince's-stream." 

It  must  be  said,  however,  that  the  above  examples  include 
(excepting  the  Mania  and  the  Onilahy)  few  of  the  largest 
streams  of  the  island,  such  as  the  Betsib6ka,i  with  the  Ikiopa, 
the  Mangoro,  the  Matsiatra,  the  Sofia,  the  Mananara,  and 
Mananjara^  (there  are  several  examples  of  these  two  names), 
the  Mahajilo,3  the  Sisaony,  and  many  others,  the  meaning  of 
whose  names  is  obscure.  We  probably  need  a  fuller  acquaint- 
ance with  dialects  other  than  the  Hova  to  understand  many 
of  the  names  applied  to  rivers.  In  the  name  of  the  Matit^nana, 
i.e.  "  Dead-handed,"  a  S.E.  coast  river,  a  piece  of  legendary 

^  Lit.,  "  Many-not-lepers."  ^  Lit.,  "  Having-a-share." 

3  Jilo  is  "  sharp-pointed." 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES.  129 

history  of  a  giant  having  thrown  his  hand  across  the  stream 
at  an  enemy,  is  said  to  be  preserved  ;  but  it  is  probable  that 
the  story  has  been  invented  to  account  for  the  name.  In  some 
portions  of  the  east  coast  of  Madagascar  the  names  of  tribes 
and  of  the  rivers  flowing  through  the  territory  are  identical, 
and  it  is  often  difficult  to  say  whether  the  people  took  their 
name  from  the  river,  or  vice  versa.  Curious  superstitions  cling 
to  some  of  the  rivers,  e.g.,  of  the  Matsiatra  in  Betsileo, 
Mr.  Shaw  says,  it  is  "  a  splendid  river,  though  on  account  of 
the  superstition  of  the  people  deterring  them  from  putting 
a  canoe  upon  it,  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  in  travelling 
to  and  from  the  capital  in  the  wet  season.  In  one  itinerating 
journey,  the  only  way  of  getting  the  writer's  goods  across 
was  by  balancing  them  upon  the  native  water -pitchers,  a 
man  swimming  on  each  side  propelling  the  cranky  vessel 
forward." 

The  Lake-x\dsn&^  in  Madagascar  will  not  detain  us  long,  as 
they  are  very  few  in  number  for  so  large  an  island.  The  largest 
one,  of  Alaotra,  in  the  Antsihanaka  province,  has  already  been 
mentioned  as  probably  embodying  one  of  the  few  Arabic  words 
in  Malagasy  place-names.  (It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
allied  word  "  Laut "  is  largely  used  for  "  island,"  i.e.,  "  sea- 
surrounded,"  in  the  Malayan  archipelago ;  as  Timor  Laut,  &c.) 
The  next  in  size  is  Itasy,  whose  name  at  first  sight  would  mean 
"shallow,"  the  word  tctsy  being  applied  chiefly  to  plates  and 
dishes.  It  is  said  that  this  lake  is  of  recent  formation,  at  least 
tradition  goes  back  to  a  time  when  it  is  said  to  have  been 
formed  by  the  breaking  down  of  some  embankment  by  a 
Vazimba  chieftain.  As,  however,  a  considerable  stream,  which 
in  the  rainy  season  form.s  a  grand  waterfall,  always  issues  from 
Itasy  and  forms  the  river  Lilia  (a  word  of  unknown  meaning, 
to  myself,  at  least),  this  seems  a  little  mythical.  In  a  map 
of  the  lake  made  by  Mr.  W.  Johnson  (see  Antananarivo 
Annual,  No.  L,  1875),  every  bay  and  division  of  it  has  a 
separate  name  applied  to  it,  a  proof  of  the  minute  distinction 

10 


130  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

by  the  Malagasy  of  places  by  giving  appropriate  names.^  The 
full  name  of  the  lake  is  Itasi-hanaka,  the  latter  word  being 
a  root  signifying  "  to  run  out  as  a  liquid,"  as  ink  on  blotting- 
paper,  for  example  ;  the  word  is  also  used  as  a  synonym  for 
others  meaning  lake,  pool,  &c.,  but  is  not  much  employed. 
This  word  is  also  found  in  the  name  of  a  northern  central 
tribe,  the  Sihanaka,  probably  from  the  character  of  the  country 
they  inhabit,  with  extensive  marshes,  and  the  lake  Alaotra, 
just  mentioned,  in  its  north-east  corner.  It  is  worth  notice 
that  the  word  tasy  is  found  in  several  of  the  Malayan  island 
dialects,  and  there  means  "sea."  A  lake  in  the  province  of 
Pahang  in  the  Malay  peninsula  is  called  Tassek  Bera,  evi- 
dently the  same  word  as  in  the  Malagasy.  A  small  lake 
south-west  of  Ankaratra  is  called  Vinaniony ;  vindny  is  a 
word  frequently  used  on  the  east  coast  for  a  river-opening 
through  the  bars  of  sand  which  partly  block  up  the  mouths 
of  most  of  them,  and  means  "  breach,"  "  irruption."  On  the 
south-west  coast  are  two  lakes  called  Heotry  (or  Hoetry)  and 
Tsimanampetsotse,  but  the  meaning  of  neither  of  them  is  clear. 

On  the  eastern  coast  of  Madagascar  is  a  remarkable  chain 
of  coast  lakes  or  lagoons,  into  which  the  rivers  fall.  These 
have  doubtless  been  formed  by  the  incessant  strife  between 
the  rivers  and  the  ocean,  for  there  is  a  constant  heavy  surf 
raised  by  the  south-east  trade-wind.  So  nearly  continuous 
are  these  lagoons  that  by  cutting  about  thirty  miles  of  canal 
to  connect  them,  an  unbroken  water-way  of  two  hundred  and 
sixty  miles  in  length  could  be  formed  along  the  eastern  coast 
These  lagoons  are  distinguished  by  separate  names,  as  Nosibe, 
I  rangy,  Rasoabe,  &c. 

There  are  two  or  three  examples  of  small  but  profoundly 
deep  lakes  formed  in  the  extinct  craters  of  some  of  the  old 

'  These  are:  (i)  Tarazo,  "Hereditary"  (?)  ;  (2)  Ampefy,  "  At-the-embank- 
ment "  ;  (3)  Kavanta,  possibly  "  Opening,"  as  this  is  the  point  where  the  river 
issues  from  the  lake  ;  (4)  Ambavanandriana,  "  At-the-prince's-mouth,  or  opening," 
a  strait  between  broad  reaches  ;  (5)  Loholoka,  meaning  doubtful  ;  (6)  Anjiva, 
ditto  ;  (7)  Fitandambo,  "  Wild-hog's-ford." 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES. 


volcanoes.  One  of  these,  Tritriva,  is  said  to  be  unfathomable, 
and  is  the  traditional  abode  of  the  Fanany,  a  seven-headed 
dragon  or  monster,  about  which  marvellous  stories  are  told 
{see  Chapter  V.). 

We  now  J:urn  to  the  last  division  of  the  subject,  that  of 
the  names  applied  to  Towns  and  Villages  in  Madagascar. 

Before  giving  a  few  examples  of  these  under  the  different 
classes  into  which  the  mountain-names  have  been  divided,  there 
are  two  or  three  points  which  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  con- 
sidering town  and  village  names  found  among  the  Malagasy. 
The  first  of  these  is  the  fact  already  mentioned  in  speaking 
of  the  hill-names,  viz.,  that  on  account  of  the  ancient  practice 
of  the  interior  tribes  of  building  their  villages  on  the  summits 
of  hills  and  mountains,  in  very  many  cases  it  is  impossible 
to  distinguish  exactly  between  what  are  strictly  the  names 
of  hills  and  what  are  those  of  the  villages.  It  is  possible, 
therefore,  that  some  of  the  examples  already  given  of  moun- 
tain-names may  be  names  really  applied  to  the  settlements 
formed  on  their  slopes  or  loftiest  points ;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  may  be  the  case  that  some  of  the  town  or  village 
names  to  be  presently  mentioned  are  really  those  of  the  hills 
on  which  they  are  built. 

Another  point  which  should  be  borne  in  mind  is,  that  while 
in  the  central  and  eastern  provinces  the  population  has  a  stable, 
settled  character,  having  remained  probably  for  centuries  in 
many  of  the  towns  or  villages  originally  founded  by  their 
ancestors  on  their  first  occupation  of  the  country ;  those  on 
the  western  side,  on  the  contrary,  the  Sakalava  tribes,  are 
much  more  nomadic  in  their  habits.  They  do  not  practise 
agriculture  so  much  as  the  other  peoples  ;  rice,  which  in  the 
wet  method  of  culture,  as  followed  by  the  Hova  and  Betsileo 
and  east-coast  tribes,  requires  a  good  deal  of  earth -work, 
embankments,  aqueducts,  &c.,  is  little  used  by  them  ;  and  they 
are  more  exclusively  pastoral,  keeping  large  herds  of  cattle. 
Besides  this,  their  superstitious  fear  of  death,  or  rather  of  some 


132  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

malign  influence  exerted  by  the  spirits  of  the  departed,  leads 
them,  it  is  said,  to  break  up  their  villages  when  a  death  occurs, 
so  that  their  settlements  must  be  more  like  camps  than  villages, 
properly  so  called.  The  Sihanaka  have  the  same  superstition, 
but  they  avoid  most  of  the  inconvenience  by  removing  any 
one  who  appears  dangerously  ill  out  of  the  village  and  placing 
him  in  a  hastily-constructed  hut,  which  is  afterwards  pulled 
down  and  left  to  decay.  We  shall  therefore  probably  find  little 
of  interest  in  the  village-names  of  the  Sakalava.  There  is,  how- 
ever, this  noticeable  point  in  the  principal  names,  whether  of 
towns  or  geographical  features,  all  round  the  island,  that  the 
majority  of  them  are  distinctly  recognisable  as  containing  roots 
which  are  Malagasy  as  spoken  by  the  Hova,  and  thus  they 
confirm  the  fact,  supported  also  on  other  grounds,  of  the 
essential  unity  of  the  Malagasy  language,  notwithstanding 
various  dialectic  differences. 

One  more  point  may  be  here  mentioned,  viz.,  that  in  many 
places  there  occurs  a  rather  perplexing  duality  of  names, 
arising  from  the  fact  that  the  Hova,  when  forming  military 
posts  for  the  maintenance  of  their  supremacy  over  various 
parts  of  the  island  which  they  have  conquered,  have  generally 
given  them  a  name  differing  from  that  of  the  native  village 
on  the  same  site  or  close  to  it.  These  latter  usually  retain  the 
original  appellation,  so  that  sometimes  a  stranger  is  puzzled 
to  understand  where  he  his  going,  or  what  place  the  people 
are  speaking  about. 

A  word  or  two  may  be  said  first  about  the  capital  and  chief 
towns  of  Madagascar,  before  proceeding  to  classify  the  smaller 
towns  and  villages  according  to  the  divisions  already  observed 
in  other  place-names.  The  name  of  Antananarivo,  the  capital 
city,  signifies,  somewhat  in  an  Oriental  vein  of  exaggeration, 
"  City  of  a  Thousand,"  that  is,  probably,  settlers  or  military 
colonists,  who  were  placed  there  after  its  conquest  by  the  Hova 
chieftains.  Some  have  considered  the  name  as  referring  rather 
to  the  homesteads  or  compounds,  which  clustered  probably  for 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES.  1 33 

a  long  time  as  detached  settlements  round  the  slopes  of  the 
long  steep  ridge  on  which  the  city  is  built  There  are  no  street- 
names  in  the  city,  indeed  there  are  only  three  or  four  streets 
or  principal  roads  through  the  dense  mass  of  houses,  but  the 
position  of  most  houses  is  ascertained  tolerably  exactly  by 
the  numerous  names  which  are  given  to  different  portions  of 
the  varied  and  broken  ground  over  which  the  capital  extends, 
every  prominent  hollow  or  slope  or  level  portion  having  some 
special  and  often  very  appropriate  name.  Thus  we  find  Faravo- 
hitra,  "  Last-village "  (or  hill),  at  the  northern  extremity,  and 
Ambohipotsy,  "  White-hill,"  from  the  white  soil  of  that  part,  at 
the  southern  end  of  the  ridge  ;  while  Ambohimitsimbina,  "  Hill- 
of-observation  "  (or  attention),  is  the  highest  point.  Then  there 
is  Antsahatsiroa,  "  Not-two-fields "  or  valleys,  a  steep  descent 
near  the  centre  ;  the  precipices  of  Ampamarinana,  "  Hurling- 
place,"  the  Tarpeian  Rock  of  the  capital,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
hill  ;  the  open  triangular  space  of  Andohalo,  the  coronation 
ground  and  place  of  public  assemblies,  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  city ;  and  the  level  square  plain  of  Imahamasina,  "  Place- 
of-consecration,"  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  to  the  west,  where 
military  reviews  take  place  and  where  some  of  the  sovereigns 
were  publicly  recognised  by  their  subjects.  Near  this  is  Anosy, 
"  At-the-island,"  an  artificial  lake  with  a  small  island  in  the 
centre.  (Each  royal  house  has  its  proper  name,  as  Manja- 
kamiadana,  "  Reigning-peacefully,"  Trano-vola,  "  Silver-house," 
Masoandro,  "  Sun,"  Manampisoa, "  Adding-good,"  &c.)  In  other 
parts  of  the  city  are  Ambohitantely,  "  Hill-of-honey,"  Ambato- 
nakanga,  "  Guinea-fowl-stone,"  Amparibe,  "  Much-sugar-cane," 
Analakely,  "  Little-wood,"  Zoma,  "  Friday,"  the  great  market- 
place, so  called  because  the  market  is  held  on  that  day,  &c.,  &c. 
South-west  of  the  city  is  a  large  timber  palace  which  was  built 
by  Radama  I.  on  the  site  of  a  hill  which  he  partly  levelled,  and 
called  Isoanierana,  "  Good-for-inquiry,"  or  consultation,  i.e^  a 
convenient  place  where  he  might  hear  complaints  and  dispense 
justice.  To  the  east  of  the  capital  is  Ambatoroka, "  Craggy-rocks," 


134  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

a  rough  piece  of  ground  covered  with  boulders,  and  a  former 
place  of  execution  ;  further  south  is  Mahazoarivo,  "  Having-a- 
thousand "  ;  while  to  the  west  is  a  rounded  hill  called  Amho- 
hijanahary,  "  God's-hill  "  ;  and  stretching  for  many  miles  west, 
north,  and  south  is  the  immense  rice-plain  of  Betsimitatatra, 
"  Great-undivided,"  a  name  evidently  given  before  its  enclosure 
and  cultivation,  for  it  is  now  much  divided  by  tatatra  or  water- 
channels. 

Ambohim^nga,  "  Blue-hill  "  or  "  Famous-hill  "  (or  town),  is  the 
ancient  capital,  eleven  miles  north  of  Antananarivo,  and  possibly 
so  called  from  the  mass  of  bluish  gneiss  rock  which  forms  the 
highest  point  of  the  triangular  hill  on  which  the  town  is  built. 
The  slopes  are  entirely  covered  with  woods,  which  form  a 
refreshing  contrast  to  the  generally  bare  and  treeless  character 
of  the  greater  portion  of  Imerina.  As  at  Antananarivo,  various 
parts  of  the  more  ancient  capital  are  distinguished  by  special 
names,  as  Amboara,  "  The  fig-tree  "  (vodra),  Ambatomitsangana, 
"  The  standing-stone,"  Ants^hamanitra,  "  The  fragrant-field," 
Andakana,  "  At-the-canoe,"  &c.  Ambohimanga  is  also  the 
name  of  the  chief  town  of  the  northern  Tanala,  or  forest 
people,  and  is  given  to  some  other  towns  as  well,  both  in  this 
form  and  in  that  of  Ambohimangakely  {k^ly  =  little).  The 
capital  of  the  Betsileo  province  has  a  name  probably  given 
by  the  Hova  on  their  conquest  of  the  country — Fianarantsoa, 
"  Good-learning " ;  it  is  a  town  with  about  6,000  or  7,000 
inhabitants. 

The  chief  port  of  the  N.W.  coast  of  Madagascar,  the  town 
of  Mojanga  (incorrectly  called  by  Europeans  and  on  charts 
Majunga),  derives  its  name  from  "  a  colony  of  Swahili-speaking 
Arabs,  who  were  the  first  occupants  of  the  site.  They  found, 
so  say  their  descendants,  the  shore  lined  with  flowering  shrubs, 
which,  as  the  most  remarkable  thing  about  the  place,  led  them 
to  call  their  village  mji-angaia^  '  the  town  of  flowers.' "  This 
was  subsequently  corrupted  to  Mojanga.  The  Bay  of  Bemba- 
tooka  takes  its  name  from  a  small  village  formerly  existing  on 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES.  1 35 

its  shores,  and  called  F6mbit6ka  =  fbniby  tbkana^  "  One-rofia- 
palm,"  and  corrupted  by  foreigners  into  Bembatooka.^ 

Turning  now  to  the  names  of  Towns  and  Villages  generally, 
we  find,  as  with  those  of  the  mountains,  that  natural  features 
have  frequently  suggested  their  appellations.  As  already 
noticed,  the  building  of  all  ancient  towns  of  the  interior  on 
the  summit  of  hills  has  made  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible  in 
many  cases,  to  be  sure  whether  the  name  given  to  a  town  on 
a  hill  is  not  more  strictly  that  of  the  hill  itself  So  that,  as 
with  mountain-names,  we  also  find  the  ideas  of  "  height "  in  a 
few  town-names  ;  as  Avomalaza  and  Avomanitra  {avo,  "  high  "), 
Ambodinambo,  "  At-the-foot-of-height,"  Amboniloha,  "  Upon- 
the-head  "  ;  that  of  "  ascending  "  in  Fiakarana  and  lakaranosy, 
"  Goat's-ascent "  ;  and  that  of  "  lifting  up  "  in  Ambohimiarina, 
Manarinarina,  &c.  The  two  words  for  rock,  vato  and  hctrana^ 
form  frequent  combinations  in  village-names  from  the  presence 
of  bold  rocks  and  precipices  near  many  of  the  places  thus 
named  ;  as  Ivato,  Ivatovavy,  "  Women's-stone  "  (probably  from 
there  being  near  to  it  one  of  the  stones  resorted  to  and  anointed 
by  women,  from  a  belief  in  its  virtue  to  give  them  children), 
Ambatosoa,  Amb6divato,  "  At-the-bottom-of-the-rock,"  Anton- 
gombato, "  At-the-foot-of-the-rock,"  Ivatofotsy  and  Ambatofotsy, 
"  At-the-white-rock,"  Ivatolavo,  Ambatoflsaka,  Ambatotokana, 
"  At -the -solitary-rock,"  Amparafaravato,  "  At -the -stone -bed- 
stead " ;  this  is  one  of  the  three  Malagasy  towns  to  which 
entrance  is  forbidden  to  Europeans  by  an  article  in  the  1865 
treaty,  since  they  were  then  the  seats  of  the  chief  idols.  In  the 
Sihanaka  province  is  a  town  called  Amparafaravola,  "  At-the- 
silver-bedstead,"  and  there  are  several  Ambatomalaza, "  Famous- 
stones."  Then  there  are  found  Iharana,  Ankaranila,  Ankara- 
malaza,  and  Ankaratsinanana.  The  colour  of  the  soil  also  gives 
frequent  names,  as  Antanifotsy,  "White-earth,"  Ambohipotsy, 
"  At-the-white-hill,"  Ankadifotsy,  "  At-the-white-fosse,"  Ampasi- 

^  See  paper  by  W.  C.  Pickersgill,  Esq.,  in  L.M.S.  Missionary  Chronicle,  Oct. 
1882,  p.  323  ;  and  Antananarivo  Annual,  No.  XIL,  1888. 


136 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


mena,  "  At-the-red-sand,"  Ivohimena,  "  Red-hill,"  &c.  We  also 
find  Ambohidroa, "  Two-towns,"  and  I fitobohitra,  "Seven-towns." 

Trees  and  woods  give  many  town-names,  as  Ambolobe, 
"Much-bamboo,"  Anakakondro,  "  At -the -plantain -shoots," 
Ambodirofia,  "  At-the-foot-of-the-rofia "  (palm),  Antapiabe, 
"  Much-tapm  "  (a  tree  with  edible  fruit,  and  used  for  silkworm 
culture),  Ampangabd,  "  Much-fern,"  Ivohidroy,  "  Bramble-town," 
Amboatavo,  "  At-the-gourds,"  Ankazomasina,  "  At-the-sacred- 
tree,"  lalamalaza,  "  Famous-wood,"  Analamaizina,  "  At-the-dark- 
wood,"  Ambaniala, "  Below-the-wood,"  Beravina, "  Much-foliage," 
Tamponala,  "  Top-of-the-wood,"  &c.  The  pleasant  situation  of 
many  villages  gives  appropriate  names  to  not  a  few  of  them, 
which  contain  the  words  ^sdra  (good)  and  sda  (pleasant),  the 
latter  of  which  is  especially  frequent,  as  Antanantsara,  Ambo- 
hitsara,  Itsarafidy,  "Well-chosen,"  Itsarahonenana,  "  Good-for- 
dwelling-in,"  Ambohitsoa,  Ambatosoa,  Ambalasoa,  Antsahasoa, 
Ikianjasoa,  Isoaririnina,  "  Pleasant-in-winter,"  and  Soamonina, 
"  Pleasant-to-dwell-in."  The  latter  word  also  comes  in  frequently 
in  villages  called  Soavina  and  Soamanana  ;  one  is  termed  Soa- 
tsimanampiovana,  "  Unchangeably-pleasant,"  and  the  same  idea 
of  security  is  expressed  in  Fiadanana,  "  Peace,"  and  Mahavelona, 
"  Causing-to-live."  ^  The  open  position  of  many  villages, 
exposed  to  sunlight,  gives  a  name  to  several ;  as,  Masoandro, 
Bdmasoandro,  "  Much-sun,"  and  Ambohibemasoandro  ;  and  the 
extensive  prospect  from  others  gives  their  names  of  Mahatsinjo, 
"  Able-to-overlook,"  and  Tsinjoarivo,  "  Overlooking-a-thousand." 

New  settlements,  now  probably  very  ancient  (like  our  own 
Newports  and  Newcastles),  have  left  their  traces  in  Ambohibao, 
"Newtown,"  a  very  common  village  name  in  Imerina  ;  in  An  toby, 
"  At-the-camp,"  and  Andranovao,  "  At-the-new-house  "  (?)  ;  while 
the  advance  of  settlers  upon  ground  previously  unoccupied 
seems  to  have  given  a  name  to  the  many  places  called  Ambo- 
himandroso,  " Progressing-town,"  and  Mandrosoa,  "Advance" 

*  I  remember  this  name,  a  rather  common  one,  is  that  of  one  of  the  filthiest 
villages  I  ever  stayed  a  night  in  ;  the  whole  place  being  a  foot  deep  in  cowdung. 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES. 


(verb  imp.).  Many  village-names  include  the  Malagasy  equiva- 
lents for  our  Anglo-Saxon  words  ton,  ham,  burgh,  bury,  &c.,  and 
the  Danish  by  and  thorpe,  in  the  words  vala,  "  a  homestead,"  as 
Ambalavotaka,  Ambalatany,  Ambalavola,  Ambalasakay,  and 
Ambala,  &c. ;  in  hddy,  "  a  fosse,"  one  at  least  of  which  surrounds 
every  old  village  (and  homestead),  and  very  frequently  several 
deep  trenches  are  found  one  within  the  other ;  as  Ankadibe, 
Ankadisarotra,  Ankadimainty,  Ankadifotsy,  Ambodihady,  and 
Ankadivorib^,  "  Big-round-fosse "  (the  ordinary  name  for  a 
country  house  is  hddivbry)  ;  and  in  sdha,  "  field,"  as  Antsahape- 
traka,  Antsahafilo,  Antsaharoaloha,  "  Two-headed-field,"  Isaha- 
fary,  "Sugar-cane-field,"  and  Isahabato, "  Stony-field,"  &c.  There 
are  a  very  few  village-names  referring  to  roads,  or  rather  paths, 
as  Antsampanimahazo,  freely  translated,  "  You  may  choose  your 
path,"  applied  to  two  or  three  places  at  the  junction  of  cross- 
roads ;  another  bears  the  (probably  often  too  appropriate)  name 
of  Ampotaka,  "  In-the-mud." 

From  the  situation  of  many  Malagasy  villages  on  the  banks 
of  rivers  are  derived  several  descriptive  names,  as  Antsam- 
pandrano,  "  At-the-branching-of-the-waters,"  Ambodiriana  and 
Amboniriana,  "  At-the-foot-of- "  and  "  Upon-the-cataract,"  Ifara- 
hantsana,  "  Last-rapids "  (on  the  river  Ikiopa),  Isarahanony, 
(perhaps)  "  At-the-separating-of-the-streams,"  Andranomandry, 
"By-still-waters,"  Amparihy, "  At-the-lake,"  Andohatanjona, "  At- 
the-head-of-the-promontory,"  and  Imavorano,  "  Brown-water  "  ; 
while  we  find  an  exact  equivalent  of  "  Oxford  "  in  Ampitanomby, 
and  an  approach  to  "  Cambridge "  in  Tetezambato,  "  Stone- 
bridge."  One  name  seems  to  complain  of  a  lack  of  moisture, 
Itsimisirano,  "  There's-no-water  !  "  On  the  sea-coast  several 
village-names  include  the  word  vindny,  "river-mouth,"  as  Ivinany, 
Vinaniony,  &c.,  and  also  Masondrano,  a  word  of  similar  meaning, 
found  both  in  this  form  and  in  that  of  Masondranokely. 

A  considerable  number  of  village-names  include  the  word 
nosy,  which  is  generally  translated  "  island  "  ;  it  appears,  how- 
ever, in  many  cases  to  mean,  more  exactly,  a  rising  ground 


138  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Standing  up  from  marshes  and  rice-fields,  and  more  or  less  sur- 
rounded by  them,  a  very  near  parallel  to  our  Anglo-Saxon  ea 
or  ey^  "  an  island,"  as  in  the  names  Chelsea,  Thorney,  Putney, 
Chertsey,  &c.i  Thus  we  find  Nosivato,  "  Rocky-island,"  Nosi- 
manj^ka,  "  King's-island,"  Nosisoa,  N6siv61a,  Nosipatrana, 
Nosikely,  Anosivarika,  N6sizato,  "  Hundred-isles,"  Nosiarivo, 
"  Thousand-isles,"  and,  simply.  Nosy  or  Anosy. 

In  the  central  district  of  Imerina  a  number  of  village-names 
include  that  of  the  province,  with  some  additional  descriptive 
word  ;  these  are  probably,  in  some  cases  at  least,  memorials  of 
certain  additions  of  territory  or  change  of  boundary ;  thus  we 
find  Imerimandroso,  Imerinavaratra,  Im^rintsiadino,  Soavini- 
merina,  and  Imerinarlvo.  The  western  division  of  Imerina,  the 
Imamo  district,  also  gives  a  name  to  a  few  villages,  as  Arivoni- 
mamo  and  Tsinjovinimamo.  The  habit  of  the  central  Malagasy 
of  assembling  at  large  open-air  markets  for  the  sale  and  pur- 
chase of  every  kind  of  native  product  gives  a  name  to  many 
villages  near  such  markets,  according  to  the  days  of  the  week 
on  which  they  are  held.  So  we  find  numerous  places  called 
Alahady  (although  markets  are  no  longer  held  on  Sunday  in 
the  central  provinces),  Alatsinainy,  Talata,  Alarobia,  Alakamisy, 
Zoma,  and  Asabotsy. 

As  with  mountain-names,  so  also  in  those  of  some  towns  and 
villages,  the  words  for  various  animals  enter  into  their  formation ; 
the  words  mamba  and  voay,  "  crocodile,"  dintay  "  leech,"  ambba^ 
"  dog,"  bsy,  "  goat,"/^^«,  "  crab,"  hala,  "  spider,"  and  many  others, 
all  occurring ;  thus,  Mambazato,  "  Hundred-crocodiles "  (no 
exaggeration  this  in  numberless  places) ;  less  definite,  but  very 
suggestive,  is  Marovoay,  "  Many-crocodiles,"  a  Hova  post  and 
Arab  settlement  near  the  mouth  of  the  Betsiboka  river  ;  Masom- 
boay,  Antsahadmta,  Amboatany,  Ambohitrosy,  Antsahamaro- 
foza,  and  Antohokala.  Most  frequent  are  those  compounded 
with  bmby^  "  ox,"  as  Mamiomby,  "  Sweet-to-oxen,"  probably 
referring  to  good  pastures  (Soaronono,  "  Good-(for)  milk,"  is 
*  Cf.  Words  and  Places,  p.  367  ct  scq. 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES. 


probably  of  similar  meaning  to  the  foregoing),  Antandrokomby, 
"  Ox-horn,"  Lohaomby,  "  Ox-head,"  Ambohitromby,  "  Ox-town," 
and  Ambositra,!  "  At-the-ox  "  (or  oxen).  Fahitra,  the  word  for 
the  sunken  pen  or  fold  in  which  cattle  are  kept  and  fattened, 
enters  into  many  village-names,  especially  places  where  these 
fdhitra  were  numerous  or  of  great  size,  or  made  by  some  famous 
chief  of  former  times  ;  thus,  Ampahitra,  Ampahitrizana,  Ambo- 
difahitra,  Ampahimanga,  &c.  Here  we  have  a  similar  use  of  the 
word  to  that  in  our  English  place-ending  by  or  byr  (cf  Scot. 
byre^  "  a  cow-stall  ").  A  few  villages  take  their  name  from  some 
prominent  or  numerous  tree  or  plant  growing  plentifully  near  it, 
as  Amboatavo, "  At-the-gourds,"  Amboasary,"  At-the-lemons,"  &c. 

The  most  common  village-names  of  the  class  already 
grouped  as  personal  are  those  derived  from  chieftainship,  fre- 
quently including  the  words  manjaka^  sovereign,  and  andriana^ 
prince,  noble ;  and  our  English  Kingstowns,  Kingstons,  and 
Princetons  find  a  Malagasy  parallel  in  numerous  places  called 
Ambohimanjaka,  Ambohitrinimanjaka,  Ambatomanjaka,  Man- 
jakanandriana,  Miadamanjaka,  "  Reigning-peacefully,"  Ambohi- 
trandriana,  Ambatonandriana,  and  Iharanandriana ;  some  of 
these  being  probably  the  chiefs  village  in  earlier  times.  Of  some- 
what similar  meaning  is  Ikianjamalaza,  "  Famous-courtyard," 
and  Ikianjasoa  ;  while  the  principal  village  of  a  former  petty 
state,  often  a  very  little  place,  is  remembered  in  many  an 
Ambohibe  and  Ivohibe,  "  Big-village,"  and  in  frequent  Antan- 
amalaza  and  Ambohimalaza,  "  Famous-towns  "  and  "  villages."" 
We  also  find  Ambohitompo,  "  Lord's-town,"  and  Ambalampi- 
tsara,  "  Judge's-homestead."  Other  villages  preserve  the  name 
of  a  former   famous  king  or  chieftain,  as  Ambohidrabiby,^ 

'  Vdsitra  is  the  ox,  strictly  so  called  ;  diuby  being  a  wider  word  for  cattle 
generally;  hence  dinbilaJiy,  "a  bull,"  zanakbmby,  "a  calf,"  &c, 

^  Rabiby  was  an  early  king  in  Imerina,  who  is  said  to  have  slain  an  enor- 
mous wild-boar  ;  and  he  is  also  remembered  as  the  first  who  discovered  that  beef 
was  good  to  eat.  This  tradition  is  probably  true  so  far  as  it  recalls  an  early 
period  when  the  ox  was  considered  a  sacred  animal,  and  its  flesh  was  only  eaten 
as  part  of  a  religious  service. 


140  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


Ambohidratrimo,  Ambohidrapeto,^  Ambohidratamo,  Ambohi- 
dramijay,  and  Ambatondrazaka .2 

Some  tribal  divisions  or  boundaries  are  probably  preserved 
in  the  many  village-names  which  include  the  word  arivo^  "  thou- 
sand," zato,  "  hundred,"  and  fblo^  "  ten,"  as,  Ivohitrarivo,  Ambo- 
hipoloarivo  (10,000),  Soavinarivo,  Iharinarivo,  Ambohijato  and 
Ambijato,  and  Ampolo.  Tribal  names  are  given  to  some 
villages,  which  were  formerly  perhaps  their  chief  settlement ; 
as,  Anjanadralambo  (the  Zanadralambo  are  the  sixth  and 
lowest  rank  of  andriana,  the  noble  or  royal  clans  ;  Ralambo, 
their  ancestor,  was  the  same  as  the  Rabiby  just  mentioned,  and 
was  so  called  from  his  slaying  the  wild-boar  or  lambd) ;  and 
Ampahidralambo,  "Ralambo's-ox-fattening  pit"  ;  and  Ambodila- 
langina  (the  Lalangina  are  the  easternmost  division  of  the 
Betsileo  people).  Bits  of  local  and  tribal  or  family  history  are 
probably  fossilised  in  such  names  as  Itelolahy,  "  Three-men," 
Ivohidraivo,  "  Raivo's-town,"  Imarovavy,  "  Many- women," 
"  Imarozaza,  "  Many-children,"  Fierenana,  "  Dividing-place," 
Fierena,  "  Refuge,"  Isoanierana,  "  Good-for-inquiry  "  (an  open- 
air  court),  Ampihaonana,  "  Meeting-place,"  Ambohidray, 
"  Father's-village,"  Ambohijatovo,  "  Youth's-village,"  Ambohi- 
janaka,  "  Children's-village,"  Ifenovahoaka,  "  Full-of-people,  ' 
Tsarahavana,  "  Good-(by)  relations,"  Itsiazombazaha,  "  Not- 
taken -by-foreigners,"  &c.,  &c.  Old  sacred  places  and  shrines 
are  indicated  by  many  an  Ambohimasina  and  Ambatomasina, 
{inasina^  sacred),  and  perhaps  in  Ambohijanahary  and  Am- 
bohitrandriamanitra,  "  Creator's-"  and  "  God's-town."  Sacred 
and  venerated  trees  {Jidzd)  also  give  a  few  village  names, 
as  Ankazomasina  and  Ankazobe. 

About  the  other  two  divisions  in  which  Malagasy  town  and 
village  names  may  be  classed,  viz.,  those  of  "  doubtful "  or 
"obscure"  meaning,  it  is  unnecessary  to  speak  here,  for  the 
reasons  given  in  speaking  of  the  names  of  mountains  and  rivers. 

^  Rapeto  is  said  to  have  been  a  giant,  and  to  have  performed  marvellous  feats 
of  strength.  ^  The  chief  town  of  the  Sihanaka  province. 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES.  I4I 

Some  local  allusions,  obvious  enough  on  the  spot,  would  pro- 
bably explain  many  of  the  first  class  of  names  ;  while  fuller 
knowledge  of  old  and  obsolete  or  provincial  Malagasy,  and 
careful  inquiry  among  the  natives,  will  be  required  to  elucidate 
the  meaning  of  many  of  the  second  of  these  classes. 

Before  concluding,  a  few  words  must  be  added  upon  one 
other  class  of  Malagasy  place-names  yet  unnoticed,  viz.,  those 
of  Provmces  and  Districts.  Here,  however,  a  difficulty  occurs 
in  distinguishing  many  of  them  from  those  of  the  tribes  who 
inhabit  these  various  regions  ;  since  in  many  cases  it  is  difficult 
to  say  whether  the  people  take  their  name  from  the  country 
they  live  in,  or  whether  the  country  is  called  after  the  people. 
So  that  here  the  study  of  place-names  is  almost  inseparable 
from  that  of  personal,  or  rather,  tribal,  names.  In  other  cases, 
as  on  the  coast  plains,  river-names  and  tribal-names  are  equally 
difficult  of  exact  discrimination,  that  is,  as  regards  the  priority 
of  the  two.  These  points  cannot  be  now  fully  discussed,  but  a 
few  examples  may  be  given. 

The  meaning  of  the  name  of  the  central  and  leading  pro- 
vince of  Imerina  is  obscure  (to  myself  at  least) ;  the  district  is 
also  occasionally  termed  xA.nkova,  from  its  Hova  inhabitants. 
Among  the  subdivisions  of  Imerina  are  Vakinankaratra,  the 
district  "  Cut-off-(liL  "  broken-")  by-Ankaratra  "  (mountains), 
Vakintsisaony,  "  Cut-off-by-(the  river)  Sisaony,''  Imamo,  Voni- 
zongo,  Valalafotsy,  "  White-locusts  '  a  (tribal  name),  and  to  the 
north,  Avaradrano,  "  North-of-the- water,"  Anativolo,  "  Among- 
the-bamboos,"  &c.  But  the  smaller  district  names  are  very 
numerous,  and  would  require  a  separate  article  for  their  full 
treatment. 

South  of  Vakinankaratra  is  the  Manandriana  district,  the 
northernmost  division  of  the  populous  Betsileo  province,  home 
of  the  "  Unconquered  "  tribe  (so  named,  although  they  have 
been  overcome  by  the  dominant  Hova)  ;  with  the  other  sub- 
divisions of  Isandra,  so  called  from  the  river  flowing  through  its 
centre,  and  this,  again,  traditionally  said  to  be  named  after  a 


142  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Hova,  one  Andriantsandra  ;  Ilalangina  (literally,  "  Quiet-road," 
but  there  is  probably  some  other  meaning) ;  and  larindrano 
"There-is-water,"^  probably  from  the  numerous  streams.  Further 
south  still  is  the  Bara  country.  In  this  province,  with  its 
widely  scattered  population,  there  appears  to  be  necessarily  a 
good  deal  of  change  in  its  place-names,  since  the  numerous 
petty  kingdoms  or  chieftaincies  are,  like  many  African  king- 
doms,2  called  after  the  names  of  the  reigning  chief. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  island,  beginning  at  the  northern 
point,  is  the  Ankarana,  "  the  Rocky  "  province,  possibly  taking 
its  name  from  a  remarkable  rock  fortress  where  the  inhabitants 
have  often  held  their  own  against  an  invading  force.3  Coming 
south,  are  the  districts  of  Vohimarina,  "  Level-hill,"  the  promon- 
tory sheltering  Antongil  Bay  and  called  Maroa  (in  Hova  this 
word  is  an  imperative  form  meaning  "  Be  many,"  it  is  said  to  be 
so  called  from  a  small  river  of  the  same  name,  possibly  thus 
named  from  its  sudden  increase  in  the  heavy  rains  of  the  wet 
season)  ;  and  south  of  this,  again,  are  a  number  of  districts, 
some  called  after  the  principal  town  in  them,  some  after 
the  chief  river,  and  inhabited  by  numerous  tribes  generally 
termed  "  Betsimisaraka,  the  "  Many-unseparated."  Inland 
from  these  is  the  Betanimena  country,  "  Much-red-earth,"  while 
the  great  marsh  district — the  Malagasy  fen-country — around, 
but  chiefly  south  of  the  chief  lake,  Alaotra,  is  called  Antsi- 
hanaka,  the  "  Lake-people's-district"  South  of  this  is  the 
long  open  plain  between  the  two  eastern  lines  of  forest,  and 
called  Ankay,  the  "  Clearing,"  from  its  comparative  absence 
of  wood.  Its  inhabitants  are  called  the  Antankay,  and  also 
the  Bezanozano,  "  Bush  people."  The  south-eastern  forest 
region  is  called  the  Tanala  country,  "  home  of  the  Foresters." 
East  of  this  again,  on  the  coast  plains  south  of  the  Betsi- 
misaraka district,  are  the  regions  occupied  by  the  Taimoro 

^  See  Rev,  G.  A.  Shaw's  paper,  "The  Betsileo  Country  and  People," 
Antananarivo  Annual,  No.  III.  pp.  74,  76. 

2  E.g.,  Urambo,  after  Mirambo.      3  See  Antananarivo  Annual,  No.  III.  p.  27. 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES.  1 43 

tribe,  a  word  of  probably  similar  origin  to  an  identical  one  used 
in  the  Melanesian  islands,  and  there  meaning  "  the  live  sea," 
because  of  the  active  surf  The  Taimoro  occupy  a  coast 
exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the  S.E.  trade  winds.^  Then 
come  the  Taisaka,  the  Taifasy,  and  other  districts.  At  the 
extreme  south-east  corner  of  Madagascar  is  the  fertile  vale  of 
Ambolo,  "  At-the-Bamboos,"  and  the  region  occupied  by  the 
Tanosy,  or  "  Islanders  "  (?)  ;  and  proceeding  round  the  southern 
point,  and  turning  northward  along  the  western  side  of  the 
island,  are  the  territories  of  the  Tandroy,  the  Masikoro,  the 
Vezo,  the  emigrant  Tanosy,  and  the  Antifiherenana ;  and 
north  of  these  is  the  extensive  region,  extending  nearly  to  the 
north  of  the  island,  inhabited  by  the  various  tribes  loosely  called 
Sakalava,  because  conquered  by  a  warlike  people  of  that  name. 
This  conquering  race  formed  two  kingdoms,  that  of  Iboina  to 
the  north,  and  Menabe  south  of  it.  The  latter  of  these  two 
words  is  probably  the  same  as  that  used  by  the  Hova  to  denote 
an  estate  held  direct  from  the  sovereign. 

It  will  be  evident,  therefore,  that  to  treat  this  division  of 
Malagasy  place-names  completely,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
combine  with  it  an  examination  of  tribal  names  ;  and  perhaps 
this  may  be  attempted  at  some  future  time,  when  our  informa- 
tion on  these  becomes  more  full  and  accurate  than  it  now  is. 
Enough  has  probably  now  been  said  to  show  how  full  of  interest 
the  inquiry  is,  and  how  much  light  is  thrown  upon  the  mental 
character  of  the  Malagasy,  as  well  as  on  some  other  subjects, 
by  the  names  they  give  to  the  natural  features  of  the  country, 
as  well  as  to  the  settlements  and  towns  they  have  formed  over 
its  surface. 

'  See  Antanaiiarh'o  Annual,  No.  VI.  p.  25. 


144  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


APPENDIX. 

BETSILEO  PLACE-NAMES.i 

Among  the  most  common  and  characteristic  place-names  amongst 
the  Betsileo  are  the  following  : — 

Towns. — I  vohibe,  Ambohibe,  Ambohimandroso,  Mahazoarivo,  Vohitrarivo, 
really  Vohitsarivo,  Ivohitromby,  really  Ivohitsaombe,  Ambbhitromby,  really 
Ambohitsaombe.  The  compounds  with  -arivo  ("  thousand  ")  are  very  fre- 
quent as  names  of  towns  ;  e.g.,  Ivohitsarivo,  Mahazoarivo  (the  ancient  capital 
of  the  I  Sandra  province,  where  Andriamanalina  lived  at  the  time  of  his  famous 
negotiations  with  Andrianampoinimerina),  Akarinarivo,  Ambohimanarivo, 
Andrainarivo,  Ilanjainarivo,  Tomboraivo.  As  far  as  my  own  experience 
goes,  towns  with  this  noun  of  number  (indicating  great  quantity  of  wealth 
of  cattle,  slaves,  subjects,  &c.)  are  or  were  invariably  the  seat  of  rather 
superior  Umpo-inenakely  {i.e.,  feudal  land  proprietors),  never,  so  far  as  I 
have  seen,  mere  villages  included  in  but  not  the  capital  of  the  menakely 
(estate).  Fenoarivo  appears  to  be  an  Ambaniandro  (a  name  given  to  the 
Hova  by  the  Betsileo  and  southern  tribes)  name.  There  is  one  Fenoarivo 
in  the  Manandriana  province,  but  not  in  the  Betsileo  proper,  i.e.,  south  of  the 
Matsiatra  river  ;  and  that  one  Fenoarivo  is  a  Government  town,  probably 
named,  as  undoubtedly  many  Government  towns  in  the  south  were  named 
[e.g.,  Fanjakana  and  Fianarantsoa),  not  by  the  aborigines,  but  by  the 
colonists  from  the  capital.  There  is  another  between  Ikalamavony  and 
Modongy  ;  but  there  are  too  many  runaway  slaves  and  Hova  there  to 
make  it  a  real  Betsileo  village.  The  compounds  with  -buy  are  also 
characteristic.  Ony  in  these  words  is  not  used  as  the  equivalent  for  river  ; 
and,  indeed,  it  is  doubtful  whether  iano  (water)  is  not  a  more  correct 
translation  for  that  word  at  all  times,  the  buy  being  simply  the  confluence 


^  This  paper  on  the  place-names  of  the  southern-central  province  of  Mada- 
gascar, the  Betsileo,  is  from  the  pen  of  my  friend  and  brother  missionary,  the 
Rev.  Charles  T.  Price,  formerly  for  several  years  resident  in  that  part  of  the 
island,  and  which  he  kindly  allows  me  to  add  to  my  own  paper. 

This  chapter  was  written  thirteen  years  ago,  and  first  published  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  April,  1873.  Since  that  time  M.  Grandidier 
has  published  the  volume  on  the  Historical  Geography  of  Madagascar,  in  his 
great  work  on  this  country  ;  and  in  his  very  elaborate  tables  of  all  the  known 
place-names  both  on  the  coast  and  the  interior  he  has  given  the  meanings  of  many 
hundreds  of  these.  He  has  also  added  an  essay  on  the  place-names,  from  which 
I  have  extracted  paragraphs  as  to  the  prefixes  An-  and  Am-  in  the  early  part  of 
this  chapter.  The  only  other  paper  I  know  of  on  the  subject  is  an  amusing  one 
by  Vice-Consul  W.  C.  Pickersgill,  in  Antananarivo  Annual,  No.  XII.,  1888, 
entitled,  "  Revision  of  North-West  Place-Names  ;  some  Curiosities  of  Topo- 
graphical Nomenclature."  He  shows  how  Europeans,  ignorant  of  Malagasy, 
and  Hovas,  ignorant  of  provincial  dialects,  have  alike  corrupted  the  coast  names. 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES. 


of  the  lano.  At  any  rate,  in  place-names  ojiv  means  the  confluence  of 
the  people,  a  large  gathering,  profanum  riilgus  of  Rome,  or  ol  iroWoi 
of  Athens.  Thus,  Nasandratsofiy  (corrupted  by  Hova  and  Europeans  into 
Nasandratony)  is  the  place  that  was  raised  up,  or  built,  by  the  multitude 
— a  name  easily  understood  by  any  one  who  has  seen  the  large  gatherings 
of  people  in  this  comparatively  small  village  assembled  by  Ramavo,  a 
descendant  of  Andriamaniilina,  and  chieftainess  there.  Other  instances 
arc  Ambohitsoaony,  Ambalamisaony=the  homestead  where  there  is  a 
gathering  of  people),  and  Tondroinony.  Either  by  the  "  -any "  or 
"  -anvo,"  or  some  other  such  addition,  important  towns  generally  have 
names  far  removed  from  the  mean  or  commonplace.  One  might  be 
tolerably  sure,  for  instance,  that  such  a  place  as  Amboasary  or  Itaolana 
was  not  anciently  of  great  importance. 

Villages  and  homesteads. — Frequently  such  names  begin  with  the  con- 
tracted place-form  of  vbhitra  or  vala,  as  Ambohibarj',  or  Ambalabe." 
Vbhitra  is  a  village  or  town,  and  although  vala  is  often  used  of  a  col- 
lection of  houses  numerous  enough  to  be  called  a  village,  3'et  strictly 
speaking  a  vala  is  a  homestead,  the  equivalent  in  Imerina  being  iambbho. 
Our  place  at  Fanjakana,  with  its  house  and  outbuildings,  including  kitchen, 
school-room,  scholars'  dwellings,  &c.,  standing  in  a  large  garden,  was 
correctly  named  Ambatolahinandrianisiahana  =  "  At  -  Andrianisiahana's- 
vatolahy"  or  monument  (not  grave),  which  stood  at  the  very  gateway  of 
the  premises.  But  the  place  was  usually  spoken  of  as  a  vala,  occasionally 
as  a  vbhitra,  and  once  I  heard  a  native  speak  of  going  outside  the  com- 
pound, as  going  outside  the  tanaua.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  there  is 
no  fixed  law  for  the  use  of  either  word  in  forming  place-names  of  villages 
or  towns.  Not  so,  however,  with  the  prefixes  I-  and  Am-  or  An-.  I  am 
not  referring  to  the  simple  omission  of  the  I-,  as  in  Fianarantsoa  for 
Ifianarantsoa,  which  is  a  mere  matter  of  habit  and  fashion  ;  but  to  the 
non-interchangeability  of  the  simple  form  with  or  without  the  I-,  and  the 
form  with  the  Am-  or  An-.  Vohibe  or  Ivohibe,  for  instance,  is  not  the 
same  as  Ambohibe,  nor  Ivohipotsy  as  Ambohipotsy.  Vodisandra  is  the 
mouth  of  the  Sandra  river  ;  Ambodisandra  is  the  name  of  the  adjacent 
village.  Vatolahinandrianisiahana  is  the  name  of  the  deceased  judge's 
monument  ;  but  it  would  have  been  incorrect  to  call  our  place  Ivatola- 
hinandrianisiahana ;  it  was  ^77ibatolahinandrianisiahana.  I  have  heard 
tendrombbhitra  used  for  vbhitra  :  is  it  not  possible  that  the  true  vohitra  was 
situated  at  the  tendrombbhitra  f  that  Ivohipotsy,  for  instancd^was  the  village 
at  the  top  of  the  hill  Ivohipotsy,  and  Ambohipotsy  the  village  on  the  hill- 
side ? ' 

Physical  features. — The  compounds  with  harana,  a  precipice,  are  very 
common  in  the  more  precipitous  parts  of  the  Betsileo  province.  Names 
with  this  compound  invariably  represent  faitlifuUy  the  nature  of  the  place. 
Instances  are,  Ankaramalaza  (at  least  two  in  the  larindrano,  and  one  in 

^  Ambalavao  is  one  of  the  most  common,  wearisomely  so. 
^  On  this  point,  cf.  p.  133  ante. 

II 


146 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


the  Ilalangina),  Ankaranosy  (the  ascent  to  which  might  well  be  termed  a 
"  goat-tract,"  ysv  =  goat)  and  Ankaratsinanana.  More  common  still  are  names 
recording  other  physical  features  of  the  locality,  as  Ivatoavo,  Ambatoreny, 
Ambatosba,  Vatomitatana,  Ambatomena,Andranovorivato,  Vatofotsy,  Anjo- 
lobato,  Ambatomainty,  Ambatofinandrahana  ("the  chiselled  rock"),  Ambo- 
himiarina  (which  is  "  perched  up  "  near  the  crest  of  a  high  hill),  Midongy 
(on  a  hill  in  the  south),  and  Modongy  (in  the  west  ;  a  cloud  seems  to  be 
always  sullenly'  frowning  round  its  overhanging  brow),  Ilamosina,  Ampasina 
(=  Ampasika),  Vinany  and  its  numerous  compounds.  There  are  at  least 
three  places  in  the  Betsileo  named  Andrainjato,  one  in  each  of  the  three 
provinces,  and  each  of  them  rocky  hills.  That  in  the  Isandra  is  a  pro- 
minent rather  than  lofty  ridge,  on  which  are  many  rocks  curiously  piled 
together.  It  is,  and  I  believe  always  has  been,  uninhabited  ;  but  there 
are  many  other  named  places  quite  desolate.  In  the  Sandra  there  is 
a  current  proverb,  as  follows  :  "Andrainjato  ro  avo-tany,  nasandratsa  nx 
bitsika  :  ko  ny  biisika  ro  be-loha,  sasatsa  ny  iiitao-tane,"  i.e.,  "Andrainjato  is 
lofty  ground  because  raised  by-  the  ants  ;  and  the  ants  have  big  heads 
because  they  are  weary  with  carrying  earth." 

The  plants  most  plentiful  or  peculiar  to  the  neighbourhood  appear  fre- 
quently to  give  the  name  to  a  village  or  uninhabited  hill,  e.g.  Ikando  (where 
the  wild  plant  kando  freely  grows),  Amboasary,  Ankazosoaravina,  Sakaviro 
(?  a  transposition  of  Sakarivo  =  ginger),  Beanana,  Andranorondrona,  Anka- 
fotsa  {hafotra),  Anahimalemy,  Vahambe,  Ankafina,  Saha,  Sahamalaza, 
Besakoana.  There  are  two  towns,  both  in  the  heart  of  the  sweet-scented 
forest,  named  Ivohimimitra  {manitra  =  fragrant)  ;  but  one  at  least  of  these 
must  be  in  the  Tanala  (forest  region). 

Animals  are  represented  in  such  names  as  Alambomandrevo,  lavonomby 
Vohitromby,  Miiroparasy,  Bevoalavo,  larinomby,  Itaolana,  Kalalao,  Anka- 
ranosy. Ambohitsandrazanimamba  is  not  such  an  instance.  The  mamba 
or  voay,  with  the  Betsileo,  is  not  only  the  crocodile,  but  the  big,  awe- 
inspiring  man — king,  chief,  or  governor — in  any  place  ;  and  Ambohi- 
tsandrazanimamba was  so  named  when  old  Andriamanalina,  in  dividing 
his  inheritance  among  his  sons,  directed  that  one  of  them — probably  the 
eldest — should  leave  the  old  Isandra  capital  of  Mahazoarivo  and  reside  at 
Ambohitsandrazana.  The  mamba  was  to  miandry  fanjakana  (guard  the 
kingdom)  there,  and  hence  the  name.  When  any  of  the  family  die,  the 
body,  in  the  course  of  the  funeral  ceremonies,  involving  a  pilgrimage 
round  the  pro\flice  lasting  some  weeks  or  months,  is  sure  to  lie  in  state  for 
a  time  at  Ambohitsandrazana.  The  family  tomb  and  favourite  residence 
of  Rajoaka,  the  present  prince  and  descendant  of  Andriamanalina,  is  at 
Ivohitsasaky  (Ivohitsasaky  =  the  "  timid  village  "'),  so  named  because  it  lies 
completely  hidden  in  a  small  wood  at  the  base  of  the  range  of  hills  at  the 
end  of  which  stands  Ambohitsandrazana. 

Farther  on,  under  the  same  range  of  hills,  is  Isorana,  a  village  most  of 
whose  houses  are  built  each  on  a  separate  boulder  of  rock  of  immense 


'  Dongy  =  sulky,  morose. 


MALAGASY  PLACE-NAMES. 


size,  so  that  to  get  to  a  neighbour's  house  quite  a  perilous  journey  has  to  be 
made  from  one  boulder  to  the  other.  In  some  cases,  to  get  from  one  house 
to  the  next  you  have  to  descend  from  the  boulder  and  pass  through  an 
immense  cave  under  the  cliff.  There  are  two  of  these  large  caves  ;  one 
would  hold  a  thousand  people,  and  the  other  was  used  for  storing  rice  in  the 
old  days  of  civil  war.  They  had  a  spring  of  water  there  also,  if  I  am  not 
mistaken.  Other  of  the  houses  are  situated  between  the  foot  of  the  cliff 
and  the  boulders,  almost  if  not  quite  concealed  from  view  from  the  high 
road.  The  houses  being  almost  the  same  colour  as  the  rocks,  and  being 
either  perched  aloft  in  most  unlikely  situations,  or  else  hidden  by  the  huge 
boulders  scattered  about  before  them,  the  village  was  analogous  to  Ivohi- 
tsasaky  in  respect  of  its  modest  and  retiring  situation.  Even  if  the  village 
were  observed,  the  inhabitants,  in  case  of  alarm,  would  not  have  been 
found — they  would  have  removed  by  secret  paths  into  the  cave  behind. 
This  power  of  removing  themselves  may  have  been  the  origin  of  the  name 
Isorana,  or  Isorane,  as  the  pure  Betsileo  would  have  it.  There  is  a  proverb 
which  runs  :  "  Ivohitsasaky  ny  anaty  ala  :  ko  Isorane  ny  afiaty  vato," 
i.e.,  "  Ivohitsasaky  is  within  the  forest,  and  Isorane  is  within  the  rock." 
The  whole  of  the  valley  in  which  these  two  villages  are  situated,  and  at 
the  southern  end  of  which  Ambohitsandrazana  looks  down  from  its  lofty 
crag,  is  typical  of  the  condition  of  insecurity  in  which,  in  former  times, 
the  Betsileo  lived.  Between  Ivohitsasaky  and  Ambohitsandrazana  the  wall 
of  rock  which  shuts  in  the  valley  on  the  west  is  cleft  by  a  winding  gull}' 
at  right  angles  to  the  valley  itself.  On  one  of  the  steep  sides  of  this  gully, 
perhaps  100  feet  or  more  from  the  bottom,  the  rock  forms  a  natural  ledge 
30  or  40  feet  wide,  on  which  stands  a  single  row  of  houses  forming  the 
village  of  Ivohibasiana  (i.e.,  "  the  village  which  can  (only)  be  shot  at  " — not 
reached  in  any  other  way).  As  you  pass  along  the  road  in  the  valley  this 
village  is  only  perceptible  from  one  particular  spot,  where,  standing  at 
exactly  the  right  angle,  you  get  in  a  line  with  that  part  of  the  tortuous  gull}^ 
in  which  the  ledge  is.  Even  then  the  path  up  to  the  village  is  unseen ;  for 
the  ledge  appears  to  terminate  abruptly,  high  up  above  the  valley,  on  that 
side  from  which  you  would  approach  it  from  the  road. 

It  is  worth  while  to  remark  that  the  word  Betsileo  would  seem  to  be 
a  Hova  name  applied  loosely  and  ignorantly  to  any  place  or  people  south 
of  the  river  Sisaony.  Immediately  south  of  Imerina  comes  Vakinankaratra, 
then  Manandriana,  and  after  that  Betsileo  proper — south  of  the  Matsiatra 
river.  But  these  Betsileo  do  not  like  to  be  so  called  ;  they  prefer  their 
own  name,  judiciously  confirmed  to  them  by  the  Queen  in  a  kabary  in  1873 
— Ambohitromby,  or,  more  exactly  and  fully,  Andriambohitsaombelahy, 
which,  if  shortened,  should  be  Andriambohitsa.  They  have  great  wealth 
in  cattle  ;  though  superficial  observers  and  new-comers  have  denied  this. 
The  fact  is  that  the  pasture-land  is  getting  less  extensive  in  the  central 
parts  of  the  Betsileo,  and  that  the  wealthiest  landed  proprietors  now  keep 
most  of  their  cattle  in  the  extreme  west,  bordering  on  the  Bara  country, 
where  in  one  small  village  it  is  not  at  all  uncommon  to  see  500  to  1,000 
head  of  cattle,  all  belonging  to  some  rich  man  living  far  away  to  the 


148 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


east,  who  places  his  cattle  in  these  roomy  plains  under  tne  charge  of 
herdsmen. 

The  tendency  of  the  foregoing  rambling  notes,  as  will  be  seen,  is  to 
show  that  the  place-names  have  an  intimate  connection  with  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  places  themselves.  Even  now,  with  our  comparatively 
slight  knowledge  of  Betsileo  history,  the  connection  between  the  names 
and  the  pecuharities  or  distinctive  features  of  the  places  named  is  traceable 
in  most  cases. 


• 


^Photograph  by  Dr.  Fenn. 
A  SAKALAVA  WARRIOR  (HEATHEN). 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  CONNECTED  WITH  CHIEF- 
TAINSHIP AND  ROYALTY  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY; 
AND  NOTES  ON  RELICS  OF  THE  SIGN  AND  GESTURE 
LANGUAGE. 

The  Betsileo — Special  words  or  "  Chiefs'  language  " — In  Malayo-Polynesian 
languages — For  Malagasy  sovereigns — Illness  and  death — Burial — INIourn- 
ing  —  Diseases  —  Royal  servants — Royal  houses  —  Chiefs'  words  among 
Betsileo — For  family  of  chiefs  —  For  elderly  chiefs  —  For  chiefs  old  or 
young — Extreme  honour  paid  to  chiefs  —  Fady  or  Taboo  in  words — 
Tabooed  animals  —  Ro^-al  names — Sacred  character  of — Veneration  for 
royalty  —  Sakalava  chiefs'  posthumous  names  —  Relics  of  the  sign  and 
gesture  language — Salutations  —  Symbolic  acts — Royalty  —  "Licking  the 
sole  " — Kaharys — The  Taboo. 

MY  object  in  the  present  chapter  is  to  call  attention  to  and 
to  describe  some  peculiar  words  and  customs  in  use 
among  the  Hova,  or  people  of  the  central  province  of  Imerina, 
and  also  among  the  Betsileo,  the  tribe  inhabiting  the  district  to 
the  south  of  this  first-named  province.  The  Hova  are  probably 
the  latest  and  purest  Malayan  or  lighter  Polynesian  immigrants ; 
they  are  also  the  most  advanced,  intelligent,  and  civilised  of  the 
various  Malagasy  tribes  ;  among  them  education  and  Christi- 
anity have  made  the  greatest  progress  ;  and,  since  the  beginning 
of  this  century,  they  have  become  the  dominant  tribe  of  the 
country,  and  their  queen  is  sovereign  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
island. 

The  Betsileo  are  a  darker  race  than  the  Hova,  being  pro- 
bably descended  from  Melanesian  ancestors,  or  from  a  mixture 


ISO  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

of  the  dark  and  light  Pacific  islanders  ;  they  are  also  taller  and 
perhaps  stronger  than  their  northern  neighbours,  although, 
owing  to  the  superior  discipline  of  the  Hova  soldiers,  they  were 
subdued  by  them  about  eighty  years  ago,  and  have  ever  since 
been  obedient  subjects  to  the  sovereign  at  Antananarivo.  They 
appear  to  me,  as  well  as  to  others  who  have  lived  both  in 
Imerina  and  in  the  Betsileo  province,  to  be  less  intelligent  than 
the  Hova,  but  possibly  this  may  be  because  their  advantages 
have  been  less.  Among  them,  however,  very  satisfactory  progress 
is  being  made,  and  both  the  London  Missionary  Society  and  the 
Norwegian  Lutheran  Mission  have  a  large  number  of  congre- 
gations and  many  thousands  of  children  in  their  schools. 

It  is  a  fact  well  known  to  all  philologists  that  in  several 
groups  of  language  there  are  found  classes  of  words  which  are 
only  used  by  the  people  when  speaking  of  their  sovereigns  or 
chiefs,  with  regard  to  their  persons,  their  actions,  and  their  sur- 
roundings, as  well  as  to  the  honours  paid  to  them  both  when 
they  are  living  and  after  death.  And  for  a  long  time  past  it  has 
been  known  that  in  the  central  province  of  Imerina  there  are  a 
number  of  such  specialised  words  which  are  employed  with 
regard  to  the  sovereign,  and  these  have  probably  been  in  use  for 
centuries  as  applied  to  the  chiefs  of  the  central  province.  It  will 
be  seen  that  these  are  not  words  which  are  not  also  employed 
with  regard  to  ordinary  persons  or  things  or  actions,  but  are 
almost  all  of  them  commonly  used  words  which  have  gained  a 
special  and  different  meaning  when  applied  to  the  sovereign. 

The  more  noticeable  of  these  words  are  connected  with  the 
illness,  decease,  and  burial  ceremonies  of  a  Malagasy  sovereign, 
although  there  are  also  two  or  three  which  are  applied  to  the 
living  king  or  queen.  (Perhaps,  however,  these  are  more  of  the 
nature  of  honorific  titles  than  strictly  coming  within  the  class 
of  words  we  are  here  discussing.)  Thus,  an  old  word  for  a 
sovereign  is  Ampingara-bolamena,  literally  "golden  gun,"  the 
first  part  of  the  phrase  being  taken  from  the  Portuguese  espin- 
gaj'da,  so  that  this  term  is  not  of  more  ancient  origin  than  about 


CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  151 


three  centuries  ago,  or,  at  most,  three  centuries  and  a  half. 
Another  term  appHed  to  the  sovereign  is  Fdhiray /'^rst,''  a  word 
which  is  not  used  with  regard  to  things  generally,  although  it  is 
formed  strictly  according  to  the  rule  for  making  ordinal  from 
cardinal  numbers  {e.g.,fdharba,  second,  from  rba,  two  ;  fdhatelo, 
third,  from  tclo,  three),  the  word  voalbhany  (vba,  fruit,  /b/ia,  head) 
being  always  used  for  "  first."  ^  A  term  sometimes  applied  to 
the  queen  by  elderly  officers  in  public  speeches  seems  to  our 
notions  somewhat  impertinently  familiar,  viz.,  Ikdlatbkana ;  in 
ordinary  talk  by  the  people  this  means  "  our  only  lass,"  and  the 
word  ikdla  is  often  applied  also  to  hens.  If  one  might  venture 
on  such  a  free  translation,  it  seems  to  mean  {not "  cock  of  the 
walk,"  but)  ''hen  of  the  roosting-place."  It  is,  however,  very 
like,  in  its  free  familiarity,  the  use  of  the  word  laldhy  ("  you 
fellow ")  to  the  former  kings  by  some  of  their  most  privileged 
councillors.  The  members  of  the  royal  family  are  termed 
Atinandrlana  (lit.  "the  liver,"  or  "inside,"  of  the  sovereign  or 
chief).  And  among  some  tribes  the  chiefs  are  termed  Mdson- 
drdno,  i.e.,  "  water  channels,"  through  whom  all  benefits  are 
supposed  to  be  derived,  as  the  water  flows  along  the  bed  of  a 
river. 

Returning,  however,  to  the  more  exact  illustrations  of  the 

subject,  a  Malagasy  king  or  queen  is  not  said  to  be  "  ill " 

{inardry\  but  "  rather  warm  "  {inafdnafdnd).    And  they  do  not 

"  die  "  {indty\  but  are  said  to  "  retire,"  or  "  to  turn  the  back  " 

{iniainboho).    In  parts  of  Madagascar  distant  from  Imerina,  the 

word  folaka  (bent,  broken,  weakened)  is  employed  in  speaking 

of  a  deceased  chief    (With  regard  to  people  generally,  among 

the  Tanala  and  other  tribes,  the  phrase  fola-mdnta  \inanta,  raw] 

^  A  curious  word  for  chiefs  and  their  wives  is  used  by  the  Bara,  Sakalava  and 
some  other  Malagasy  tribes,  viz.,  h\hy  which  in  Imerina  usually  means  "  animal," 
"  beast,"  or,  as  an  adjective,  "  sensual,"  "brutal  "  ;  although  it  is  also  used  here 
of  children  as  well,  probably  much  in  the  same  way  as  words  of  an  unpleasant 
(and  even  nasty)  meaning  are  often  applied  to  children  and  infants  from  fear  of 
some  envious  and  malign  influence,  such  as  the  "  evil  eye."  Perhaps,  however, 
it  is  really  a  wwd  of  entirely  different  origin,  from  the  Swahili  hihy,  "'my  lady," 
"  my  mistress." 


152 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


is  used  for  sudden  death  ;  fSlaka  mt-ddntony  \_ldniony,  the  fore- 
arm ?],  for  dying  young  ;  while  ti'dno  fSlaka  is  the  house  \trdno\ 
where  a  corpse  hes  in  state.)  Then  the  dead  body  of  a  sovereign 
is  not  termed  "  a  corpse "  {fdty),  but  "  the  sacred  thing  "  {ny 
mdsind).  The  late  Queen  Ranavalona  II.,  who  died  in  1883,  is 
always  spoken  of  as  Ny  Mdsina  in  the  government  gazette  and 
in  proclamations,  as  well  as  by  the  people  generally  in  ordinary 
conversation.  There  is  among  the  Hova,  as  well  as  among  the 
other  Malagasy  tribes,  a  deep  sense  of  "  the  divinity  that  doth 
hedge  a  king  "  ;  and  until  the  acceptance  of  Christianity  by  the 
late  queen  and  her  government,  the  Hova  sovereigns  were 
termed  "the  visible  God"  {Andrlamdnitra  hita  indso)\  other 
terms  of  similar  import  were  also  applied  to  them.  In  accord- 
ance also  with  this  same  belief,  upon  the  stone  structure  covering 
the  chamber  formed  of  slabs  of  undressed  rock,  where  the  royal 
corpse  is  deposited,  a  small  timber-framed  building  is  erected, 
which  is  called  the  "  sacred  house  "  {trdno  mdsina).  This  is  in 
appearance  exactly  like  the  old  style  of  native  house,  made  of 
timber  framing,  the  walls  of  thick  upright  planking,  and  high- 
pitched  roof  covered  with  wooden  shingles.  This  distinction  of 
having  a  timber  house  built  upon  the  stone  tomb  is  also  shared 
by  the  higher  ranks  of  nobles,  who,  it  should  be  remembered,  are 
descended  from  ancient  kings  in  Imerina. 

When  the  corpse  of  a  sovereign  is  lying  in  state,  the  women 
in  their  various  divisions  or  tribes  are  expected  to  come  in  relays 
to  mourn  ;  but  this  ceremonial  mourning  is  not  called  by  its 
usual  name  iinisaond)^  but  the  people  are  said  to  "  present "  or 
offer  tears  "  {inidti-drdnomdso).  Then  again,  a  sovereign  is  not 
said  to  be  "  buried  "  {alevina),  but  is  "  hidden  "  {aftnind) ;  and 
the  massive  silver  coffin  made  of  dollars  hammered  into  plates, 
in  which  most  of  the  Hova  kings  or  queens  in  more  recent 
times  have  been  buried,  is  called  the  "  silver  canoe  "  {Idkam-bold), 
a  word  in  which  a  little  bit  of  history  is  doubtless  preserved  :  a 
remembrance  of  a  former  period  when  the  Hova  were  not,  as 
they  are  now,  an  inland  people,  but  a  coast-dwelling  or  an  island 


CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.    1 53 


tribe,  and  buried  their  dead  in  an  old  canoe,  as  is  still  the  custom 
with  the  Sakalava,!  the  Betsimisaraka,  and  other  Malagasy 
peoples  living  on  the  coast. 

When  the  royal  corpse  has  been  deposited  in  its  last  resting- 
place,  and  the  stonework  at  the  entrance  to  the  tomb  is  being 
closed  up  again,  this  act  is  called  stopping  up  the  sun  "  {tdinpi- 
viasoandrd) ;  the  sovereign  being  "  the  sun,"  the  light  and  warmth 
of  his  people,  and  was  formerly  often  so  termed  in  public 
speeches.2  Much  the  same  idea  appears  in  the  phrase  used  by 
some  of  the  coast  tribes  in  speaking  of  the  decease  of  their 
chiefs,  viz.,  "  the  king  is  reclining,"  or  "  leaning  on  one  side  " 
{inihilana  ny  ainpanjakd).  This  same  word  is  used  in  Imerina 
to  denote  the  afternoon,  the  "  decline  of  the  day  "  {inihllana  ny 
andro).  A  very  bold  and  poetical  figure  is  also  employed  to 
express  the  general  mourning  at  the  decease  of  a  sovereign, 
Mihohoka  ny  tdny  dman-ddnitra,  i.e.,  Heaven  and  earth  are 
turned  upside  down "  !  This  is  not  the  place  to  describe  in 
detail  the  many  and  curious  ceremonies,  as  well  as  the  numerous 
things  prohibited  to  be  done,  at  the  decease  of  a  Malagasy  king 
or  queen  ;  suffice  it  to  say  that,  with  very  few  exceptions,  every 
one's  head  had  to  be  shaved  ;  no  hat  could  be  worn  or  umbrella 
carried  ;  the  Idviba  only  (no  European  dress)  could  be  worn,  and 
this  had  to  be  bound  under  the  armpits,  leaving  the  shoulders 
uncovered  ;  all  singing,  dancing,  or  playing  of  musical  instru- 
ments was  prohibited,  as  well  as  the  practice  of  many  handicrafts, 
as  spinning,  weaving,  making  of  pottery,  gold  and  silver  work, 
&C.3     Of  course  some  occupations  could  not  be  altogether 

^  A  somewhat  similar  historical  fragment  lies  under  the  word  used  for  the 
water  used  in  the  circumcision  ceremonies  :  it  is  termed  rano  masina,  "  salt 
water,"  and  in  the  case  of  children  who  are  heirs  to  the  throne  it  must  actuallj' 
be  fetched  from  the  sea.  (raiionuisina).  Doubtless  sea  water  was  formerly  used 
in  all  such  cases  while  the  Hova  were  still  a  shore-dwelling  tribe. 

=  And  so  concealing  property  due  to  the  sovereign,  or  peculation  of  govern- 
ment dues,  is  termed  manao  masoandro  an-karona,  i.e.,  "  putting  the  sun  into  a 
basket." 

3  See  account  of  the  funeral  ceremonies  at  the  death  of  Radama  I.,  given  in  a 
subsequent  chapter. 


154 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


abandoned,  such  as  the  tilHng  of  the  soil,  sowing  and  planting 
rice,  &c.  ;  but  such  work  was  not  called  by  the  usual  terms,  but 
was  mentioned  as  mildtsaka  an-tsdha,  i.e.,  "  going  into  the 
country,"  or  "settling  down  in  the  fields."  So  also,  the  usual 
word  for  "  market "  {tsena)  is  not  employed  during  the  time  of 
public  mourning,  but  these  great  concourses  of  people  are  called 
simply  "  meetings,"  or  "  places  of  resort  "  (^fihdonana).  They  are 
also  called  tsena  mdlahelo,  "sorrowful  markets."  In  speaking  of  the 
death  of  relatives  of  the  sovereign,  they  are  not  said  to  be  dead, 
but  "  absent,"  or  "  missing  "  {dlso).  The  same  figurative  phrase 
as  is  used  by  ourselves  in  speaking  of  friends  or  relatives  who 
are  dead  as  "  departed,"  is  also  employed  by  the  Malagasy,  who 
say  their  friends  are  Idsa,  "  gone  "  ;  they  also  speak  of  them  as 
reraka,  i.e.,  "  faint,"  "  exhausted,"  and  as  Idtsaka,  i.e.,  "  fallen,"  or 
"  laid  down  "  ;  while  the  surviving  members  of  a  family  of  which 
some  are  dead  are  spoken  of  as  "  not  up  to  the  right  number  " 
{Idtsak'  isd).'^  With  regard  to  the  ordinary  people  also,  their 
dead  relatives  are  said  to  be  "  lost "  {very\  and  "  finished,"  or 
"  done  "  iyitd)  ;  and  also  Idsan-ko  rdzana,  i.e.,  "  gone  to  become 
ancestors." 

Although  not  strictly  included  in  the  present  subject,  it  may 
be  remarked  that  the  same  use  of  euphemistic  expressions  as 
those  just  mentioned  with  regard  to  death  is  also  seen  in  those 
used  by  the  Malagasy  in  speaking  of  things  they  have  a  great 
dread  of,  especially  small-pox,  which,  before  the  introduction  of 
vaccination,  often  made  fearful  ravages  in  Imerina,  as  it  still 
occasionally  does  among  the  coast  tribes.  This  terrible  disease 
is  called  beleviby,  i.e.,  "  greatly  deserted,"  no  doubt  from  the  con- 
dition of  the  villages  where  it  had  appeared.  It  is  also  called 
lavira,  an  imperative  or  optative  formed  from  the  adjective 
Idvitra,  "far  off,"  and  thus  meaning  "be  far  away!"  or  "avaunt!" 
A  feeling  of  delicacy  causes  other  euphemisms,  such  as  the 

^  A  very  poetical  expression,  in  which  the  word  latsaka  also  occurs,  is  used  in 
speaking  of  the  dead,  who  are  said  to  be  as  "  Salt  fallen  into  water  which  cannot 
be  salt  again  "  ("S/m  latsaka  an-drano  ka  tsy  himpody  iutsony"). 


CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.    1 55 

phrase  didiain-pbitra,  literally,  "cutting  the  navel,"  instead  of 
fdra  and  other  terms  denoting  the  circumcision  ceremonies. 

The  use  of  some  special  words,  as  applied  to  certain  classes 
of  royal  servants  or  attendants,  may  here  be  noticed  ;  although 
possibly  these  also  are  not,  speaking  exactly,  of  the  class  of 
the  euphemistic  expressions  like  the  majority  of  those  described 
above.  Thus  the  royal  cooks  are  termed  the  "  clean-handed 
ones  "  {inadio  tanana) ;  describing,  no  doubt,  what  they  should 
be,  even  if  they  occasionally  are  not  exactly  what  their  name 
implies.  Then  some  companies  of  royal  guards  a  few  years  ago 
were  termed  the  "  sharp  ones "  {inarmiitra  ;  cf.  Eng.  "  sharp- 
shooters "  ?).  The  government  couriers  in  the  provinces  are 
called  keli-lohdlika,  lit.,  "  little-kneed  "  ;  while  a  class  of  palace 
servants  in  constant  attendance  on  the  sovereign,  and  from 
whom  the  queen's  messengers  are  chosen,  are  the  tsiinandS,  or 
tsiinandao,  i.e.,  "  never  forsaking,"  because  some  of  them  are 
always  in  attendance,  day  and  night,  upon  the  sovereign.  The 
queen's  representatives  at  distant  places  are  called  inasoivbho, 
i.e.,  eyes  behind  "  ;  but  this  word  is  also  now  used  in  the  more 
general  sense  of  an  "  agent "  of  other  persons  besides  the 
sovereign. 

It  is  an  ancient  custom  that  members  of  the  royal  family, 
and  of  the  next  highest  class  of  andriajia,  or  nobles  (the  Zanak'- 
Andriamasinavalona),  who  happen  to  have  committed  serious 
offences,  are  not  put  into  iron  fetters,  but  are  bound  with  cords. 
And  when  any  subject  of  high  position  is  accused  of  crime,  a 
spear  with  silver  blade,  engraved  with  the  name  of  the  sove- 
reign, is  carried  by  government  officers  and  fixed  in  the  ground 
opposite  the  door  of  the  accused  person's  house.  This  spear  is 
called  Tsitialainga,  i.e.,  "  hater  of  lies  "  ;  and  while  it  remains  so 
fixed,  no  inmate  of  the  house  can  leave  it.  Among  the  Taimoro 
chiefs,  a  house  set  apart  for  their  wives  who  are  of  noble  birth  is 
called  Fenovbla,  i.e.,  "  full  of  money." 

The  rapacious  character  of  the  upper  classes  among  the 
Malagasy  is  significantly  shown  by  a  provincial  name  given  to 


156  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

the  chief  people,  viz.,  Ardraldhy,  i.e.,  "gluttonous,  eager  to  take 
one's  share  before  others."  The  despotic  nature  of  Malagasy- 
sovereigns  is  clearly  shown  in  many  native  proverbs  ;  e.g.,  "  Ny 
manjdka  toy  ny  Idnitra,  ka  tsy  azo  refesina;  toy  ny  mdsodndro,  ka 
tsy  azo  tohaina^'  i.e.,  "  The  sovereign  is  like  the  sky,  and  cannot 
be  measured  ;  like  the  sun,  and  cannot  be  contended  with." 

Another  fact  with  regard  to  royalty  may  be  recorded. 
During  the  reign  of  Queen  Rasoherina  (i  863-1 868),  a  new 
royal  house  was  erected  in  the  palace  yard  at  Antananarivo,  as  is 
customary  when  a  new  sovereign  comes  to  the  throne.  But  in 
this  case  the  standard  for  all  the  chief  dimensions  of  the  build- 
ing was  the  refy,  or  fathom,  as  measured  by  the  queen  herself, 
between  the  tips  of  her  fingers  when  the  arms  were  stretched  to 
their  full  extent — in  her  majesty's  case,  about  five  feet  eight 
inches  in  length.  And  it  was  a  matter  of  no  small  trouble  and 
annoyance  to  Mr.  J.  Cameron,  who  designed  and  superintended 
the  building,  to  make  all  his  dimensions  in  accordance  with  the 
standard.  He  had,  in  fact,  to  make  a  new  scale,  for  all  the 
principal  dimensions  of  the  palace,  and  of  its  verandahs,  doors, 
windows,  &c.,  were  multiples  or  fractions  of  the  queen's  personal 
refy,  as  measured  by  herself 

One  of  the  students  in  the  London  Missionary  Society's 
College  at  Antananarivo,  named  Rajaonary,  from  North 
Betsileo,  told  me  that  such  special  words,  as  applied  to  the 
chiefs,  were  a  very  marked  feature  in  the  speech  of  the  Betsileo 
people,  and  that  in  fact  there  were  a  much  larger  number  of 
these  words  employed  in  the  southern  province  than  were  in 
use  among  the  Hova.  He  gave  me  at  the  same  time  a  number 
of  examples  ;  and  I  then  asked  him  to  note  down  these  words, 
which  he  accordingly  did  in  a  few  days,  writing  quite  a  small 
essay  on  the  subject.    He  entitles  it — 

"  Special  Words  employed  among  the  Betsileo  with 
reference  to  their  chiefs. 
"  The  Betsileo  are  a  people  who  pay  extraordinary  respect  to 


CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  AMONG  TITK  MALAGASY.    1 5/ 

their  chiefs,  and  from  this  fact  everything  relating  to  them  is  a 
thing  kept  specially  for  them,  and  is  not  allowed  to  be  mixed 
up  with  what  belongs  to  the  mass  of  the  people.  The  chiefs 
houses,  although  there  is  very  little  difference  between  them  and 
those  of  the  people  generally,  are  like  something  sacred  or  set 
apart  in  a  special  manner,  so  that  no  one  can  enter  them  at  will, 
but  only  after  having  asked  and  obtained  leave  of  the  chief,  or 
after  being  summoned  by  him.  And  again,  after  having  entered^ 
no  one  can  push  himself  forward  north  of  the  hearth,i  or  stand 
idly  about,  but  must  sit  quietly  and  respectfully  south  of  the 
hearth.  And  in  the  same  manner  also  the  things  in  the  house 
are  set  apart,  for  the  drinking-tin,  the  spoons,  the  plates,  &c.^ 
cannot  be  handled  or  put  to  the  lips  ;  for  if  any  one  drinks  from 
them,  the  hand  must  be  held  to  the  mouth,  and  the  water  then 
poured  into  it  from  above.  The  chief's  bedstead  cannot  be  used 
by  any  person  except  one  who  is  also  a  chief  The  mat  on 
which  a  chief  sits  in  his  house  must  not  be  trodden  upon,  but 
must  be  lifted  up  in  passing,  and  cannot  be  sat  upon  by  any  one 
but  himself  And  all  the  furniture  in  the  house  is  like  some- 
thing sacred,  and  must  not  be  lightly  touched  when  carried 
outside,  for  those  who  receive  it  are  warned  by  the  words  '  an- 
ddpa '  ('  belonging  to  the  palace '),  that  they  may  take  care  of 
it.  And  not  only  are  the  things  in  the  chiefs  house  thus  set 
apart  for  his  own  use,  but  also  even  those  in  the  people's  houses, 
should  the  chief  have  chanced  to  use  them  ;  and  even  their 
own  drinking-tins,  ladles,  &c.,  are  often  kept  untouched  by  the 
lips,  lest  the  chief  should  chance  to  pass  by  and  require  them, 
so  that  the  Betsileo  are  accustomed  to  drink  water  out  of  their 
hands. 

"  But  not  only  are  things  thus  kept  by  the  Betsileo  for 
special  use  by  their  chiefs,  but  many  words  are  also  set  apart  for 
them,  both  the  names  for  certain  things  and  other  names  as 
well.    These  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  as  follows  : — 

"  I.  Words  specially  applied  to  the  Family  of  Chiefs,  from  their 
*  The  place  of  honour  in  a  Malagasy  house. 


158 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


birth  until  maturity,  but  while  their  parents  are  still  living.  See 
the  followincr  : — 


Ordinary  Beisilco 
word. 

English. 

Word  used  for  the        j  -  .^    ,  , , 
Children  of  Chiefs.        ^'^'"'^  Meaning. 

Kilbiiila 

Children 

A nakbva 

Child  of  the  Hova.^ 

Mill)  nana 

To  eat 

M  isba 

Sba,  in  Hova,  good,  plea- 
sant. 

Villa 

Plate  or  dish 

Fisoavana 

Verbal  noun  from  above. 

Vclbma 

Farewell 

Mahazba  iwiio 
inasina 

Lit.,  'May  you  get  a  sacred 
nipple.'  ^ 

MiUraka 

To  bear  offspring 

Manidina 

To  cause  to  descend. 

Maty 

Dead 

Fblaka 

Bent,   broken,  weakened, 
see  p.  151,  ante. 

Fdty 

Corpse 

Vblafblaka 

Broken  or  bent  money. 

"  2.  Words  specially  applied  to  Elderly  Chiefs — that  is,  those 
who  are  too  old  to  have  their  father  and  mother  still  living. 
When  that  is  the  case,  there  is  a  considerable  change  made  in 
the  names  given  to  the  parts  of  the  body,  as  well  as  in  certain 
words  describing  their  actions  and  their  condition.  This  will  be 
seen  by  the  following  list : — 

Ordinarx  Beisilco         r„.iii.'h         Word  used  for  r  Hr.-^i  m  >-,„;,. ,^ 

■    J  hnpitsli.  ]_  ,       ■•  /•  Literal  Mea  iuip. 

ivord.  Lldeiiv  Chiefs. 


Ant  it  r  a 


Old 


Mdsina 


Sacred,  established,  &c.,  see 
p.  152. 

Aiiakandrtana     An    adult    man  Hdzui,  or  ny  an-  Hova  (see  ante),   or  the 
(lit..  '  child   of     driandahy  prince, 
the  chief)  3 

Andrdnobe  (wife  An  adult  woman  Hova,  or  ny  an-  Hova,  or  the  princess, 
of  above)  (lit.,    '  at    the  drlanibavy 

great  house ') 

Loha  Head  Kaheso  Brains  (?) 

Maso  Eye  Fanilo  Torch.* 

Sqfina  Ear  Fihainbana  The  listening  (or  listener). 

Xanana  Hand  Fandrav  The  taker. 


^  The  word  Hova  seems  to  convey  the  idea  of  "noble,"  "princely,"  in  many  of 
the  non-Hova  tribes.  So  when  the  Betsileo  salute  any  of  their  own  chiefs,  they 
say,  "  Manao  akbry  ny  Hova  e  f  " — i.e.,  "  How  is  the  Hova  ?  " 

2  Cf.  Isa.  Ix.  16  :  "  Thou  shalt  also  suck  the  milk  of  the  Gentiles,  and  shalt  suck 
the  breasts  of  kings." 

3  This  phrase  is  customary  in  public  speaking  as  a  mark  of  respect  to  the 
chief's  children,  when  deprecating  blame  (as  is  always  done  in  the  opening  sen- 
tences of  a  kabary  or  public  speech). 

4  C/:  "  The  lamp  of  the  body  is  the  eye." 


CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.    1 59 


Oi'diiiorv  liitsHc 
word. 

Word  used  for 
Elderly  Chiefs. 

Literal  Meauiiifl. 

Toiigotra 

Foot 

Fa  lid  id 

The  treader. 

A  i/y 

1 001  n 

Fa  iiL'va 

A  flag  (lit.,  the  hoverer). 

Ti'oka 

Jtseiiy 

Fisafoaiia 

Scifo  is  'rubbing,'  'caress- 
ing.' 

j\I III  I  lUl  lUl 

1  0  Cell 

III  tj  nil  1  Ull  11 

K-) 

V  11  III 

J-*"  1  T/i  n  lit I'n  11/1 

1  i J  il  1 1  f  U 1  U  t  ILL 

r7'\  \^^^rHll    nnnn    (vr\rin  r\t'rf^- 

ceding  word. 

If' 

M  ipcti'cikii 

1  0  SIL 

j'i  lari  11  a 

To  be  erect  (in  Hova). 

j\I(llldcll(l 

To  go 

111  11  nil  nil  1  11 

To  remove  (do.). 

Ma  11  dry,  or  Ma- 

To  lie  down,  to 

Mirotra 

(?) 

tory 

sleep 

Fiirafdra 

Bedstead 

Filanana 

Place  of  desire  (.?) 

Vady 

Husband  or  wife 

Fitdiia 

A  ford  (in  Hova). 

1\1  illV 

Lost. 

Fafv 

Corpse 

Havcrczana 

The  losing,  from  very,  lost, 
see  p.  154. 

Vclbma 

Farewell  (lit., 
'may  you 
live  ') 

Mas)iia 

Manao  akbry  iiy 

Be  sacred,  established,  &c. 

Akdryanghareof^ 

How  are  you  ? 

rbtana  ? 

How  did  you  sleep  ?  (^sec 

above,  mirotra.) 

[It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  list  that  several  of  the  words 
for  the  parts  of  the  body — the  eye,  the  ear,  the  hand,  the  foot — 
are  simply  words  describing  the  actual  office  of  those  members, 
as  light-giving,  means  of  hearing,  taking,  treading,  &c.  Probably 
the  very  general  practice  of  tabooing  (making  fady)  words  which 
form  the  names  or  parts  of  the  names  of  chiefs  (which  we  shall 
notice  again  further  on)  has  had  influence  in  producing  some  of 
these  specialised  words.] 

"3.  Words  specially  applied  to  Chiefs.,  whether  Old  or  Young. 


Ordinary  Betsilco     ^     .  , 
word.  ^ 

Trdiio 
Marary 
M  ijalo 


Word  used  for 
Chiefs. 

Lapa 
Manelo 
(the  Mitrambo 


Literal  Meaning. 

(?)  Also  used  in  Imerina. 
To  shade,  to  shelter. 
(?) 


House 
111,  unwell 
To  nurse 
sick) 


'  Sometimes  this  salutation  of  the  common  people  is  substituted  by  the 
phrase  :  ''Akbry  ny  nandrianghareo  ?  "  a  phrase  of  the  same  meaning  as  the  one 
addressed  to  the  chief,  only  that  the  ordinary  word  mandry  is  here  kept  instead 
of  the  special  one  mirotra. 


i6o 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


Literal  Meaning. 

The  finished  house  (?). 

To    cause    to    go  round 

about 
Red  house.3 

To  plunge,  to  dive  ;  in 
Imerina  the  phrase  an- 
iritra  is  used  to  describe 
the  temporary  burial  of 
a  corpse  until  the  proper 
tomb  is  completed. 

"  The  poles  on  which  a  chief  s  corpse  is  carried  to  burial  are 
termed  hdzomdsina,  '  sacred  wood  ' ;  and  the  water  into  which 
they  are  cast  away  after  the  funeral  is  called  rdnodritra,  '  water 
of  endurance'?  {a^'itra,  endurance,  patience,  &c.).  When  the 
dead  from  among  the  common  people  are  spoken  of,  the  words 
Raivelona  ('  Living  father ')  or  Renivelona  ('  Living  mother ') 
are  prefixed  to  their  names  ;  but  in  the  case  of  deceased  chiefs 
the  word  Zanahdry  (God,  lit.  Creator)  is  prefixed  to  their  names 
when  they  are  spoken  of ;  in  the  same  way  as  the  word  Rabe- 
voina  Q  The  one  overtaken  by  much  calamity '  ?)  is  employed 
by  the  Hova  in  speaking  of  the  departed,  or  simply,  Itbmpoko- 
Idhy  ('  Sir,'  or  *  my  lord  '),  or  Itompokovdvy  (Madam,'  or  '  my 
lady'). 

"  The  chiefs  of  the  Betsileo  are  considered  as  far  above  the 
common  people,  and  are  looked  upon  almost  as  if  they  were 
gods.  If  anything  angers  a  chief  and  he  curses,  the  people 
consider  the  words  he  speaks  as  unalterable  and  must  surely  be 
fulfilled  ;  so  the  persons  whom  he  may  chance  to  curse  are 

^  In  Hova  Jwtraka  means  boiling,"  but  perhaps  there  is  no  connection 
between  the  two  words. 

=  Scarlet  is  the  royal  colour  in  Madagascar  ;  at  the  funeral  of  Radama  I.,  one 
of  the  large  palaces  in  which  he  lay  in  state  was  draped  from  the  ridge  of  the 
roof  to  the  ground  with  scarlet  cloth  ;  the  sovereign  alone  has  a  large  scarlet 
umbrella  carried  over  her,  and  dresses  in  a  scarlet  lamba  or  robe. 

3  See  Mr.  Richardson's  description  of  Betsileo  funeral  ceremonies,  Antanana- 
fiarivo  Annual,  I.  P-  7i,  Reprint  p.  74. 


Ordinary  Betsileo     r  ^7  ■  ?  Word  used  for 

w'ord.  Chiefs. 

Miandi  avana       To    sing  at    a  Mavipiotraka 
funeral 

Trdnovorona        Bier    (lit.,  'bird  Tranovitana 
house  ') 

Miahy  To  lie  in  state  Mampiary 

Fdsana  Tomb  Tranomcna 

Mandevina  To  bury  Maiuritra 


CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  l6l 


exceedingly  afraid  and  in  deep  distress.  And,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  anything  pleases  him,  and  he  thanks  (lit,  '  blesses ')  any 
one,  then  those  who  receive  his  blessing  are  exceedingly  glad, 
because  they  suppose  that  that  also  must  certainly  be  fulfilled. 
For  the  chiefs  are  supposed  to  have  power  as  regards  the  words 
they  utter,  not,  however,  merely  the  power  which  a  king 
possesses,  but  power  like  that  of  God  ;  a  power  which  works  of 
itself  on  account  of  its  inherent  virtue,  and  not  power  exerted 
through  soldiers  and  strong  servants.  Besides  which,  when  a 
person  is  accused  by  another  of  having  done  evil,  and  he  denies 
it,  he  is  bidden  to  lick  (or  kiss)  the  back  of  the  hand  of  the 
chief,  or  to  measure  his  house,^  and  to  imprecate  evil  (on  himself) 
while  doing  it.  In  this  way,  so  they  say,  it  is  found  out  whether 
he  really  has  committed  the  offence,  or  not ;  if  he  did  offend 
and  yet  still  persists  in  denying  it,  then  it  is  believed  that  the 
curse  he  invoked  when  licking  the  hand  of  the  chief,  or  when 
measuring  his  house,  will  return  upon  him  ;  if,  on  the  contrary, 
he  is  innocent,  he  will  remain  unharmed.  In  like  manner  also 
the  chief  is  supposed  to  have  power  which  works  of  itself,  on 
account  of  his  sacred  character,  to  convict  of  any  secret  fault. 
And  when  the  chiefs  die  they  are  supposed  to  really  become 
God,  and  to  be  able  to  bless  their  subjects  who  are  still  living ; 
and  the  reverence  in  which  they  are  held  is  extreme  ;  for  when 
their  name  chances  to  be  mentioned,  the  utmost  respect  is  paid 
to  it  both  before  and  after  the  utterance  of  it  ;  before  it  the 
words  Ny  Zanahary  (God)  must  be  prefixed,  and  after  it  the 
following  words  are  added :  '  May  the  mouth  strike  on  the 
rock,  and  the  teeth  flow  with  blood,  for  he  has  gone  to 
be  God '  -  (the  speaker's  mouth  and  teeth  being  meant). 
And  when  the  chief's  grave  is  cleared  of  weeds  and  rubbish 
the  people  dare  not  do  that  unless  they  have  first  killed 

^  Measuring  the  tomb  of  their  master  is,  I  am  told,  a  practice  followed  by 
slaves  in  Imerina  as  an  invocation  of  evil  on  themselves  if  they  have  really  done 
something  of  which  they  are  accused. 

'  "  Mikapoha  amy  ny  vato  iiy  vava,  ary  mandchana  ra  ny  nify,fa  cfa  lasan-ko 
Andrianianitra  izy." 

12 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


oxen  and  made  supplication  with  outstretched  hands  to  the 
deceased." 

A  few  remarks  may  be  here  made  about  the  practice  of 
tabooing — or  making  fady — the  words  or  parts  of  words  which 
happen  to  form  the  names  of  chiefs.  This  appears  to  be 
prevalent  all  over  Madagascar,  and  is  a  custom  the  Malagasy 
have  in  common  with  many  of  the  Oceanic  races  with  which 
they  are  so  closely  connected.  There  are  no  family  names  in 
Madagascar  (although  there  are  tribal  ones,  and  although  also 
one  name  or  part  of  a  name  is  often  seen  in  a  variety  of  com- 
bination among  members  of  the  same  family),^  and  almost  every 
personal  name  has  some  distinct  meaning,  being  part  of  the 
living  and  still  spoken  language,  either  as  names  of  things — 
birds,  beasts,  plants,  trees,  inanimate  objects,  or  names  describing 
colour,  quality,  &c.,  or  words  which  denote  actions  of  various 
kinds.  So  that  the  names  of  the  chiefs  almost  always  contain 
some  word  which  is  in  common  use  by  the  people.  In  such  a 
case,  however,  the  ordinary  word  by  which  such  thing  or  action 
has  hitherto  been  known  must  be  changed  for  another,  which 
henceforth  takes  its  place  in  daily  speech.  Thus,  when  the 
Princess  Rabodo  became  queen  in  1863,  at  the  decease  of 
Radama  II.,  she  took  a  new  name,  Rasoherina  (or,  in  fuller 
form,  Rasoheri-manjaka).  Now  soherina  is  the  word  for 
chrysalis,  especially  for  that  of  the  silkworm  moth  ;  but  having 
been  dignified  by  being  chosen  as  the  royal  name,  it  became 
sacred  {fady)  and  must  no  longer  be  employed  for  common 
use  ;  and  the  chrysalis  thenceforth  was  termed  zana-dandy, 
"  offspring  of  silk."  So  again,  if  a  chief  had  or  took  the  name 
of  an  animal,  say  of  the  dog  {anibod)^  and  was  known  as 
Ramboa,  the  animal  would  be  henceforth  called  by  another 
name,  probably  a  descriptive  one,  such  as  fandrbaka,  i.e.,  "  the 
driver  away,"  o\- fambvo,  "the  barker,"  &c. 

'  Thus,  a  friend  of  mine  at  Ambohimanga,  who  is  called  Rainizaivelo,  has  four 
daughters  named  respectively  Razaivelo,  Raovelo,  Ravelonoro,  and  Ranorovelo. 


CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  163 

Among  certain  Sakalava  tribes  certain  birds  and  animals  are 
fady,  or  sacred  or  tabooed  by  the  chiefs  and  their  families. 
Thus  the  grey  or  sooty  Parrot  ^  is  fady  to  one  of  the  Vezo  royal 
families,^  and  the  Tolbho  or  lark-heeled  Cuckoos  is  sacred  to 
one  of  the  chief  families  of  Menab6,  further  north.  Some  have 
thought  that  we  have  here  a  relic  of  the  system  of  totem,  but 
the  subject  needs  further  investigation.  A  very  curious  super- 
stition among  the  Betsileo  and  some  other  tribes  is,  that  from 
the  putrid  liquid  exuding  from  the  corpses  of  their  chiefs  a 
serpent  called  fmiany  is  produced,  and  that  this  is  an  embodi- 
ment of  the  spirit  of  the  departed.  It  is  supposed  to  take  up  its 
abode  near  the  tribe  and  to  act  as  their  protector.4 

This  tabooing  of  words  in  the  names  of  chiefs  seems  hardly 
to  have  been  carried  out  by  the  Hova  to  such  an  extent  as  it  is, 
or  has  been,  by  the  other  Malagasy  tribes.  With  one  sovereign, 
instead  of  a  number  of  petty  chiefs  or  kings,  the  changes  would 
be  minute  and  would  leave  no  great  impression  on  the  language. 
For  we  can  easily  conceive  what  an  annoying  uncertainty  would 
be  introduced  into  a  language  by  a  wide  extension  of  such 
tabooed  words,  arising  from  a  multiplicity  of  chiefs.  It  is  as  if 
we  in  England  had  had  to  avoid,  and  make  substitutes  for,  all 
such  words  as  "^^(?logy,"  "  ^^d?graphy,"  &c.,  because  they  formed 
part  of  the  name  of  King  George ;  and  such  words  as  "  wilV,' 
"  will'mg,''  "  zfz'/ful,"  &c.,  because  they  were  part  of  the  name  of 
King  William ;  or  had  now  to  taboo  words  like  "  victory,'' 
''victim,''  ''convict,"  Szc,  because  these  syllables  form  part  of 
the  name  of  Queen  Victoria.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that 
this  fashion  in  language  has  done  very  much  to  differentiate  the 
various  dialects  found  in  Madagascar  ;  and  it  is  a  matter  for 
some  surprise  that  there  is  not  a  much  greater  diversity  among 
them  than  w^e  find  to  be  actually  the  case. 

Among  the  western  tribes  of  the  country,  on  account  of  the 

large  number  of  petty  but  independent  and  absolute  kings,  a 

great  deal  of  change  in  the  spoken  language  does  take  place. 

^  Coracopsis  obscura.  ^  South-west  coast. 

3  Ccntropus  toulou.  *■  Vide  infra,  Chapter  IX.,  p.  176. 


164  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

"  The  chieftains  of  the  Sakalava  are  averse  that  any  name  or 
term  should  approach  in  sound  either  the  name  of  themseh'es  or 
any  part  of  their  family.  Hence,  when  it  was  determined  that 
the  mother  of  Rataratsa,  who  came  unexpectedly  into  the  world, 
should  be  named  Ravahiny  \yahiny,  a  stranger],  it  was  for- 
bidden that  the  term  vahiny  should  be  applied  to  any  other 
person  except  herself,  and  the  word  ainpainsick  ^  was  instituted 
to  denominate  'stranger.'"  (See  also  Chapter  VII.  pp.  112-113.) 

It  may  be  here  noticed  that  it  is  considered  highly  improper 
to  use  the  name  of  the  sovereign  frequently  or  lightly  in  ordinary 
conversation  ;  and  Europeans  happening  to  do  this,  through 
ignorance  of  native  customs,  have  been  requested  to  desist  by 
Malagasy  officers  who  chanced  to  be  present.  The  royal  name 
has  a  kind  of  sanctity,  and  must  not  be  taken  in  vain.  This 
reverence  for  royalty  extends  also  to  royal  property.  For 
instance,  it  is  a  gross  breach  of  propriety  to  sit  or  step  upon  a 
box  or  case  containing  anything  belonging  to  or  being  sent  to 
the  sovereign.  And  when  anything  belonging  to  the  queen  is 
being  carried  or  driven  along  the  high  road,  whether  cases,  or 
water-pots,  or  bullocks,  all  passers-by  must  turn  out  of  the  road, 
or  stop  close  to  the  side  of  the  path,  and  remove  their  hats  until 
the  royal  property  has  passed  by.  Further,  it  is  improper  to 
compare  any  other  building  to  the  royal  palaces,  or  to  use  it  as 
a  standard  of  height  and  size  ;  and  it  is  little  short  of  a  crime  to 
fire  off  a  gun  in  the  direction  of  the  palace,  as  this  would  be  a 
sort  of  threatening  or  defying  its  august  owner.  The  sovereign 
must  sit  in  the  highest  place  in  any  public  assembly,  and  accord- 
ingly the  queen's  pew  in  the  Chapel  Royal  at  Antananarivo, 
her  majesty's  seat  is  higher  than  the  pulpit  ;  while  at  the 
opening  of  one  of  our  Memorial  Churches  at  the  capital  a  few 
years  ago  the  late  queen's  seat  was  placed  in  the  gallery  of  the 
transept,  so  that  no  subject  might  sit  higher  than  their  sovereign. 

^  In  Dalmond's  Vocabiilairc  Mal^achc-Frangaise  four  Ics  langiies  Sakalavc  ci 
Betsimifsara,  p.  5,  I  find  this  word  thus  given  :  "  Ampentzek,  s.  Neuf,  nouveau, 
nouvel  arrive." 


CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  165 

One  more  point  as  to  Malagasy  royal  names  may  be  men- 
tioned. Among  the  Sakalava  the  chiefs'  names  are  changed  as 
well  as  among  the  Hova,  not,  however,  at  their  accession  to 
power,  but  after  their  death.  A  new  name  is  then  given  to  them, 
by  which  they  are  ever  afterwards  known,  and  it  is  a  crime  to 
utter  the  name  by  which  they  were  called  when  still  living. 
These  posthumous  names  all  begin  with  Andrian  (prince),  and 
end  with  arivo  (a  thousand),  signifying  that  such  a  chief  was 
a  "  prince  ruling  over,"  or  "  loved  by,"  or  "  feared  by,"  or  "  re- 
gretted by  thousands,"  of  his  subjects.  Thus  a  chief  called 
Raimosa  while  living  was  called  x\ndriamandionarivo  after 
death  ;  another,  called  at  first  Mikala,  was  after  death  known 
only  as  Andrianitsoanarivo.  M.  Guillain  says  :  "  This  custom 
was  not  confined  to  the  Sakalava  ;  it  existed  among  the  different 
populations  of  the  south  of  the  island,  in  Fiherenana,  Mahafaly, 
and  Androy."  Drury,  who  lived  as  a  slave  for  fifteen  years  in 
Madagascar,  from  1702  to  17 17,  also  says  of  the  south-western 
tribes  :  "  They  invoke  the  souls  of  their  ancestors,  and  hold  them 
in  great  veneration  ;  they  call  them  by  names  which  they  give 
them  after  their  death,  and  even  regard  it  as  a  crime  to  mention 
them  by  that  which  they  bore  when  living  ;  and  these  names 
are  principally  characterised  by  the  word  arivou^  which  termi- 
nates them." 

The  following  particulars  may  be  recorded  as  relics  of  the 
gesture  and  signs  accompanying  oral  speech  among  the  Hovas 
of  Central  Madagascar. 

I.  One  of  the  native  customs  which  will  probably  soon  strike 
a  foreigner  coming  into  the  country  is  that  which  is  made  use  of 
in  passing  in  front  of  a  superior,  or,  indeed,  any  one  to  whom 
respect  is  due,  or  is  desired  to  be  paid.  This  is  chiefly,  though 
not  exclusively,  observed  indoors,  and  consists  in  the  person 
passing  in  front  of  another,  who  is  usually  sitting,  bending  the 
body  low,  and,  with  the  right  hand  extended  and  nearly  touching 
the  ground,  generally  using  at  the  same  time  the  words  Mbay 
Idiana,  Toiiipoko  c  ("  Allow  me  to  pass,  sir  ").    These  words  are 


1 66  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

also  used,  with  or  without  the  bending  of  the  body,  &c.,  when 
walking  along  a  public  path,  and  passing  any  one  sitting  at  a  door, 
or  window,  or  on  the  fijerena,  or  elevated  seat  above  a  boundary 
wall.  I  have  not  heard  any  explanation  from  a  native  of  the 
meaning  or  origin  of  this  particular  gesture  ;  possibly  it  may  be 
now  lost.  But  the  Hovas  look  with  scorn  upon  those  who 
neglect  such  acts  of  politeness,  saying  of  them,  contemptuously, 
"  He  passes  on  like  an  ox,  and  does  not  say,  '  Let  me  pass.' " 

2.  Another  expressive  gesture  among  the  Hova  Malagasy  is 
that  which  is  used  in  presenting  hasina  (the  dollar  of  allegiance), 
or  any  other  present  to  the  sovereign,  or  to  the  representative  of 
royalty.  At  the  close  of  the  speech  of  formal  complimentary 
phrases  the  speaker  stretches  out  both  outspread  hands,  with 
the  palms  outward,  and,  bending  downward  and  forward,  raises 
his  hands  towards  the  great  person  addressed  until  they  are 
about  level  with  his  head.  This  appears  a  very  natural  and 
significant  gesture  when  making  an  offering. 

3.  A  sign  of  still  more  profound  respect  than  is  shown  in  the 
foregoing  gestures  is  preserved  in  the  phrase  for  abject  sub- 
mission still  in  common  use,  viz.,  inilcla-paladia.  The  literal 
meaning  of  this  is  to  "  lick  the  sole  "  (of  the  foot).  Among  the 
Hovas  this  is  now  only  a  phrase,  but  up  to  a  comparatively 
recent  period  the  act  it  described  was  one  in  common  use  as  a 
token  of  respect  from  slaves  to  masters,  wives  to  husbands,  and 
from  inferiors  generally  to  superiors.  Robert  Drury  (referred 
to  in  the  previous  page)  describes  himself  as  frequently  per- 
forming this  act  of  homage,  and  seeing  it  constantly  rendered 
by  others.  Scriptural  parallels  {cf.  Isa.  xlix.  23,  Ix.  14  ; 
Luke  vii.  38)  will  occur  to  all  readers  of  the  Bible,  as  well 
as  the  homage  paid  by  Roman  Catholics  to  the  Pope  by 
kissing  (not  his  toe,  as  commonly  said,  but)  the  cross  on  his 
slipper. 

4.  There  are  several  Malagasy  customs  connected  with 
royalty  which  are  significant  outward  acts,  although,  perhaps, 
not  strictly  to  be  reckoned  as  portions  of  the  gesture  language. 


CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  167 

Among  these  are  the  shaving  of  the  head  by  the  whole  popu- 
lation at  the  death  of  the  sovereign  ;  the  wearing  at  royal 
funerals  of  the  Idniba,  or  outer  loose  robe,  below  the  armpits 
instead  of  over  the  shoulders,  so  as  to  leave  the  upper  part  of 
the  body  uncovered ;  and  the  turning  out  of  the  way  and 
baring  the  head  when  any  royal  property  is  carried  along.  The 
bent  of  mind  among  the  Malagasy  leads  them  to  use  symbolic 
acts,'^  as  well  as  to  the  profuse  employment  of  figure  and  meta- 
phor and  parable  in  their  public  speeches  and  more  formal 
addresses. 

5.  One  can  hardly  be  long  in  Madagascar  without  observing 
that  the  people  use  a  different  motion  of  the  hand  in  beckoning 
another  to  come  near  from  that  which  we  employ  in  similar 
cases.  They  do  this  by  stretching  out  the  hand  with  the 
palm  downwards,  moving  the  fingers  toward  them,  instead  of 
turning  the  palm  upwards,  as  we  should  do. 

6.  Again,  in  pointing  out  the  position  of  anything  near  to 
them,  the  Hovas  will  not  always  trouble  themselves  to  do  so 
with  the  hand,  as  we  usually  do,  but  motion  towards  it  with 
the  mouth,  stretching  out  the  head,  and  protruding  —  in  an 
ugly  enough  fashion  certainly — the  lower  lip  in  the  required 
direction. 

7.  Another  point  to  be  here  noted  is  the  act  which  takes  the 
place  which  kissing  occupies  among  Western  peoples.  The  kiss 
seems  almost  unknown  among  the  Malagasy,  except  as  intro- 
duced by  Arabs  and  Europeans,  and  its  place  is  taken  by  nose- 
rubbing,  or  rather  of  nosQ-pressing,  a  custom,  as  is  well  known, 
widely  used  by  uncivilised  peoples,  and  apparently  a  relic  of  a 
very  primitive  habit  of  recognising  another  person  by  scent  or 
smell.  The  native  word  for  this  is  inanbroka,  a  verb  derived 
probably  from  the  root  or  ana,  nose  (Javanese,  irong  ;  Celebes, 
urong),  the  terminals  na  and  ka  being  often  interchangeable. 
The  shaking  of  hands  is  not  a  native  custom,  but  is  being 
largely  adopted  where  foreign  influence  prevails. 

^  See  Great  A  frican  Island,  pp.  332-334. 


1 68  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

8.  In  a  recently  published  journal  of  a  missionary  tour  along 
the  east  coast  of  Madagascar,  Mr.  G.  A.  Shaw  says  :  "  Only  a 
short  time  since,  in  a  village  in  the  south,  pressure  from  the 
Hova  being  brought  to  bear  on  some  Betsimisaraka  to  send 
their  children  to  a  school  which  was  in  the  same  village,  the 
women  went  about  with  their  hands  clasped  on  their  heads  (a 
Betsimisaraka  sign  of  grief),  bewailing  the  loss  of  their  children." 
In  their  ignorance  of  the  milder  Hova  rule  of  recent  times, 
they  supposed  that  school  training  was  only  a  preliminary  to 
government  service,  as  in  the  time  of  the  first  Radama  (1810- 
1828). 

9.  A  piece  of  gesture  language  seems  to  be  preserved  in  the 
Malagasy  word  for  "  blessing,"  or  "  benediction,"  which  is  isb- 
drdno,  literally,  "  blowing  water."  This  act  appears  now  to  be 
almost,  if  not  quite,  obsolete  among  the  Hova ;  but  the  word 
still  commonly  employed  doubtless  preserves  the  remembrance 
of  an  act  formerly  used  by  them  in  pronouncing  a  blessing. 
Some  light  seems  to  be  thrown  upon  this  custom  by  a  very 
similar  one  described  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Turner,  for  more  than 
forty-two  years  a  missionary  in  the  Samoan  Islands,  in  his 
Nineteen  Years  in  Polynesia  (Snow,  London,  1861,  p.  224).  In 
case  of  disease  attacking  a  Samoan,  the  high  priest  of  the  village 
sometimes  told  the  sick  man's  friends  "  to  assemble  the  family, 
*  confess  and  throw  out.'  In  this  ceremony,  each  member  of 
the  family  confessed  his  crimes,  and  any  judgment  which,  in 
anger,  he  had  invoked  on  the  family,  or  on  the  particular 
member  of  it  then  ill ;  and,  as  a  proof  that  he  revoked  all  such 
imprecations,  he  took  a  little  water  in  his  mouth  and  spurted  it 
out  towards  the  person  who  was  sick.  The  custom  is  still  kept 
up  by  many."  I  am  much  indebted  to  several  Madagascar 
missionaries  for  the  following  additional  facts  connected  with 
sign  and  gesture  language  amongst  the  Malagasy. 

In  the  ordinary  salutation  of  the  Hova,  Manao  akbry  hianao  ? 
("  How  dost  thou  do  ?  ")  the  head  is  usually  thrown  up  instead 
of  bending  it  down.    In  expressing  astonishment,  usually  with 


CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  169 

the  word  Odre !  ("Dear  me!"  or  "Oh  dear!")  the  fist  is 
frequently  held  to  the  mouth.  As  Mr.  Thorne  remarks,  the 
meaning  of  this  gesture  must  have  been  originally  to  conceal  a 
laugh,  as  it  is  also  used  when  something  funny  has  been  said. 
In  challenging,  or  expressing  defiance,  the  larnba,  or  flowing 
outer  garment,  is  waved  about  in  the  air.  Although  hardly 
gestures,  strictly  so  called,  there  are  sounds  used  by  the  Hova  on 
certain  occasions  which  are  not  speech.  These  are  a  kind  of 
"  click,"  made  by  the  tongue,  and  employed  to  express  admira- 
tion or  approval  of  public  speeches ;  and  a  deep  humming 
sound,  somewhat  like  "  hoo,  hoo,"  used  when  the  sovereign  is 
passing  as  a  salutation  to  her.  To  spread  a  clean  mat  on  the 
ground  when  the  stranger  enters  the  house  is  a  usual  sign  of 
welcome. 

Mr.  Price  remarks  that  among  the  Betsileo  the  gesture 
referred  to  in  paragraph  I  {ante)  is  carefully  observed  along  the 
roads  with  the  shortened  form  of  address,  Ombdy,  or  Oinbako. 
It  implies  respect,  and  especially  humility^  and  is  termed  i]ian- 
jbko.  Even  in  a  church  superiors  expect  an  inferior  or  younger 
person  to  show  this  mark  of  respect  when  passing.  (2)  The 
second  gesture  noted  above  is  used  every  Sunday  in  the  Royal 
Chapel,  after  the  prayer  for  the  queen,  or  the  playing  of  the 
National  Anthem  ;  also  by  the  troops  in  distant  parts  of  the 
island,  who  turn  towards  the  capital  and  thus  salute  their  distant 
sovereign,  when  the  national  air  (which  is  simply  our  "  God  save 
the  Queen,"  curiously  altered  to  Tsidikinina  f)  is  played  by 
the  band.  It  is  also  used  to  other  persons  in  giving  thanks, 
as  to  a  senior  or  superior  when  any  special  request  is  desired  to 
be  shown.  (3)  With  regard  to  the  third  {Milela-pdladia\  Mr. 
Price  says,  "  This  may  not  now  be  literally  performed,  but  that 
it  is  still  more  than  a  phrase  I  know  from  the  fact  that  an  old 
woman  once,  in  begging  me  very  earnestly  to  grant  her  some 
request,  said  Milela-pdladia,  &c.,  and  at  the  same  moment 
stooped  down  and  stroked  my  boots  with  her  hand,  and  very 
unpleasant  it  was. '    Mr.  Peill  also  says  of  this  custom  that  "  it 


170  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

is  scarcely  true  that  it  is  now  merely  a  phrase  among  the  Hova, 
as  I  have  seen  it  actually  done.  Queen's  messengers  sent  out 
to  a  certain  village  were  not,  as  they  thought,  received  with 
proper  respect ;  they  therefore  left  the  village  without  having 
delivered  the  royal  message.  The  chiefs  of  the  village  were 
dreadfully  afraid,  and  followed  after  the  queen's  messengers 
with  their  hair  all  down  (that  is,  with  the  numerous  small  plaits 
and  knots  unloosed)  over  their  shoulders,  dishevelled,  and  their 
lambas  down  below  their  shoulders.^  When  they  reached  the 
royal  messengers  they  at  once  fell  at  the  feet  of  the  principal 
one  of  them,  a  judge,  and  actually  kissed  or  licked  his  feet,  at 
the  same  time  humbly  begging  his  acceptance  of  their  repent- 
ance. He  yielded  to  their  request,  and  returned  with  them.  I 
have  no  doubt  that  while  much  less  frequent  than  formerly  was 
the  case,  the  custom  is  still  occasionally  observed." 

Mr.  Price  further  remarks  :  "  For  what  purpose  do  all  the 
people,  sometimes  when  there  is  a  great  kabary  (public 
assembly),  and  the  queen  appears,  put  down  their  umbrellas  ? 
It  has  been  said  that  they  do  so  whenever  the  queen  spits,  but 
whether  that  is  a  joke  or  not  I  cannot  tell.  More  ridiculous 
customs  are  quite  credible."  "  The  use  of  the  fingers  in  '  totting 
off'  a  number  of  heads  or  points  in  a  discourse  of  private  con- 
versation is  very  remarkable.  They  do  not  merely  touch  the 
left-hand  fingers  on  the  side  with  the  right  forefinger,  but  hold- 
ing the  left  hand  out  palm  upwards,  they  pull  up  and  lay  over 
flat  on  the  open  palm  the  fingers  one  by  one."  ^  "  In  descrip- 
tions of  persons,  things,  events,  &c.,  they  often  take  up  little  bits 
of  stone  or  stick,  or  anything  that  is  to  hand,  and  lay  them  out 
in  order  to  represent  the  different  people,  things,  events,  ideas, 
heads,  &c.,  about  which  they  are  speaking.    Frequently  they 

'  These  two  acts  are  done  not  only  at  the  death  of  a  sovereign,  but  also  at 
those  of  relatives  and  friends,  and  occasionally  even  the  head  is  shaved.  The 
hair  is  dishevelled  for  a  long  time,  and  children  in  the  schools,  and  adults  in  the 
congregation,  refuse  to  5//^^  at  all  for  a  long  time  after  the  death  of  a  relative. 

=  Malagasy  children  very  frequently  count  on  their  toes,  instead  of  their 
fingers. 


CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  I/I 


make  the  talk  much  more  emphatic  by  these  means."  "  A  loose 
woman  may  sometimes  be  known  {i.e.,  when  she  is  plying  her 
trade)  by  her  going  about  the  streets  with  her  face  covered  with 
her  Idinba.  I  remember  one  case  in  which  it  was  made  a 
reproach  to  a  woman  that  she,  a  stranger,  walked  through  a 
certain  town  to  the  house  at  which  she  was  to  stay,  '  with  face 
covered  like  a  harlot'"  {cf.  Gen,  xxxviii.  15).  The  lainba  is 
also  used  to  denote  other  feelings :  "  Note  the  covering  of  the 
lower  half  or  more  of  the  face  with  the  lainba  when  a  person  is 
sulky  or  sullen,  squatting  on  the  ground  in  silence.  Here  they 
may  do  this  when  they  are  simply  lazy  and  not  sulky,  but  they 
always  do  it  when  they  are  sulky."  The  covering  of  the  mouth 
is  also  indicative  of  modesty  or  shame,  often  further  shown  by 
uncovering  the  feet  and  lower  part  of  the  legs.  In  giving 
assurances  of  loyalty  and  obedience  at  a  public  assembly  the 
speaker  often  dances,  flourishing  his  spear  or  sword,  and  throw- 
ing off  the  lainba.  "  This  is  intended  to  express  rage  at  and 
defiance  of  an  imaginary  enemy."  Mr.  Peill  adds  :  "  At  the  end 
of  a  period  {i.e.,  of  a  public  speech)  they  jump  clean  from  the 
ground,  and  coming  down  stamp  with  both  feet  together  on  the 
ground,  in  order  to  emphasise  what  they  are  saying."  "  In 
walking  together,  friends  do  not  go  arm-in-arm,  but  hand-in- 
hand,  or  the  hand  of  one  may  be  thrown  round  the  other's 
shoulder  or  round  the  waist."  "  The  Betsileo  in  saluting  a 
superior  do  not  make  the  same  gesture  as  the  Hova.  They 
bend  forward  and  make  a  sort  of  scrape,  at  the  same  time 
laying  hold  of  the  forelock  and  tugging  at  it." 

Mr.  Peill  remarks  :  In  pointing  to  an  object  some  distance 
away,  I  have  often  noticed  that  the  Malagasy  point  the  finger 
far  higher  than  Europeans  under  like  circumstances  would  do. 
They  point  in  the  direction  of  the  thing  to  which  they  wish  to 
call  attention,  of  course,  but  up  to  the  heavens  in  that  direction, 
not  towards  the  earth."  "  Another  custom  illustrating  this 
subject  is  the  inampitaha,  one  wife  imitating  another  to  show 
that  she  is  equally  clever,  both  with  her  hands  and  feet.    I  have 


1/2  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

watched  young  girls  engaged  in  this  game  with  great  interest 
and  amusement,  and  I  imagine  that  apart  from  the  general 
object  of  the  elder  wife  showing  that  she  is  equally  clever  with 
the  younger,  each  gesture  conveys  some  definite  idea  to  the 
natives,  illustrating  the  things  in  which  the  one  is  supposed 
to  equal  or  excel  the  other."  "  I  have  seen  Malagasy  women, 
on  receiving  news  of  the  death  of  a  near  relative,  throw  them- 
selves flat  on  their  faces  on  the  ground,  and  creep  towards  the 
bearer  of  the  message,  at  the  same  time  rolling  in  the  dust,  and 
tearing  their  hair  in  their  grief" 

Mr.  Thorne  points  out  that  there  are  many  symbolic  acts 
used  by  the  Malagasy,  which  are  somewhat  connected  with 
signs  and  gestures.  Among  these  are  the  kiddy,  or  sign  of 
ownership,  or  possession,  or  protection.  This  is,  in  fact,  a  mark 
of  tabu,  or  tapu,  and  is  usually  a  tall,  upright  stick,  with  a  bunch 
of  grass  fastened  at  the  top,  and  stuck  into  the  ground  ;  although 
how  this  came  to  signify  possession  needs  further  inquiry. 
Something  similar  to  this  is  practised  by  bearers,  who  often 
come  before  a  journey  is  made  and  tie  a  piece  of  grass  round 
one  end  of  the  palanquin  pole  to  signify  that  they  are  engaged 
for  it  and  will  claim  to  carry.  A  road  or  path  is  also  tabu-Qd  by 
putting  a  stick  or  sticks  across  it  to  signify  that  those  in  the 
rear  are  to  avoid  it.  Mr.  Thorne  further  remarks  :  "  Symbolic 
acts  must  at  one  time  have  been  much  more  numerous  among 
the  Malagasy  than  at  present.  One  naturally  thinks  of  the 
piece  of  wood  sent  by  Andriamanalina  of  Betsileo  to  Andria- 
nimpoina  (King  of  Imerina),  as  his  irfy  measure  (about  5  feet 
8  inches  to  6  feet,  a  measure  formed  by  stretching  out  the  arms 
and  hands  as  far  as  they  will  reach)  ;  and  of  the  large  Idmba  on 
which  Andrianimpoina  killed  the  bullock,  not  one  drop  of  whose 
blood  fell  outside  it,  and  of  the  Idinba  afterwards  sent  by  him 
with  a  hole  cut  out  of  the  middle.  Also  of  Andriamampandry's 
symbolic  teaching  of  Andriamasinavalona.^  Among  symbolic 
acts  still  customary  I  have  thought  of  the  following  : — Spitting 
^  See  Chapter  X.  for  fuller  description  of  these  symbolic  acts. 


CURIOUS  WORDS  AND  CUSTOMS  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.    1 73 

on  noticing  a  bad  smell  (perhaps  rather  a  sensible  sanitary 
precaution)  ;  Ny  mitsbngo  dia  (lit.,  pinching  the  sole),  symbol  of 
a  desire  to  share  in  another's  good  fortune  ;  Ny  niiala  fdditra  ^ 
(throwing  away  some  object  which  has  a  supposed  connection, 
often  merely  verbal,  with  disease  or  calamity),  symbol  of  a  desire 
to  be  rid  of  some  calamity  ;  Ny  misbtro  vbkaka  (drinking  water 
mixed  with  dust  from  a  royal  tomb)  ;  and  Ny  mively  7'ano 
(striking  water  with  a  spear,  at  the  time  of  taking  an  oath  to  the 
sovereign),  symbol  of  allegiance." 

'  See  Chapter  XIII.  on  "  Divination,"  &c. 


CHAPTER  IX, 


MALAGASY  FOLK-LORE  AND  POPULAR  SUPERSTITIONS. 

Animals — The  ox — Birds — Insects — Fabulous  animals — Fanany  or  Seven-headed 
Serpent — Footprints  of  giants — Trees  and  plants — Ordeals — Folk-lore  of 
home-life — Lucky  and  unlucky  actions — Sickness  and  death — Witchcraft 
and  charms — Food  and  Fady  of  the  Sihanaka — Snakes'and  lemurs — Tabooed 
days,  in  clans,  and  villages — Good  omens,  for  food,  and  wealth — Evil  omens, 
as  to  famine,  trade,  poverty,  and  death — Weather  prognostics — Various 
portents — Dreams. 

IN  one  of  the  chapters  of  The  Great  Africaii  Island  ?i  number 
of  particulars  were  given  as  to  the  popular  superstitions  of 
Madagascar.  I  shall  not  repeat  these  here,  but  give  instead 
fresh  facts  of  the  same  kind  which  have  been  collected  since 
that  paper  was  written.  The  first  of  these  additional  contri- 
butions to  the  subject  is  a  reproduction  of  a  short  paper  of  my 
own  contributed  to  the  Folk-lore  Record,  1881.'  The  second 
is  a  paper  by  Mrs.  Mackay,  of  the  L.M.S.  Mission  in  Antsiha- 
naka,  on  "  The  Food  and  Fady  of  the  Sihanaka."  And  the 
third  is  a  paper  by  the  Rev.  S.  E.  Jorgensen,  of  the  Norwegian 
Lutheran  Mission  in  Madagascar,  on  "  Some  Popular  Malagasy 
Superstitions."  These  two  latter  papers  were  all  contributed 
to  the  Antandnai'ivo  Annual,  and  by  the  kind  permission  of  the 
authors  I  am  allowed  to  reproduce  them  in  this  volume  as  a  part 
of  the  present  chapter. 

SOME  ADDITIONAL  FOLK-LORE. 

Animals. — Many  curious  customs  and  superstitions,  it  may 

be  remembered  by  readers  of  the  paper  mentioned  in  the  first 

paragraph,  are  connected  with  the  largest  animal  found  in 

^  "  Some  Additional  Folk-lore  from  Madagascar." 
174 


MALAGASY  FOLK-LORE  AND  POPULAR  SUPERSTITIONS.  175 

Madagascar,  the  humped  and  long-horned  ox.  The  Sikalava 
of  Menabe,  on  the  west  coast,  not  only  seldom  kill  red  oxen  for 
food,  but  at  their  circumcision  festivals,  and  then  only,  they  kill 
a  bull,  instead  of  an  ox  ;  and  the  child  to  be  operated  on  is 
seated  on  the  animal's  back  during  the  customary  invocation. 
The  royal  tribes  of  Maroseranana  and  Andrevola,  in  the  Fihere- 
nana  province  (south-west  coast),  used  sometimes  to  employ 
human  sacrifices  instead  of  those  of  oxen. 

The  tribe  or  clan  of  the  south-eastern  provinces,  called  Zafy 
Raminia,  will  not  eat  flesh  unless  the  animal  has  been  killed  by 
the  hand  of  one  of  their  own  tribe. 

The  Rev.  C.  F.  Moss  relates  that  "  a  place  called  Analavory 
[between  the  capital  and  the  north-west  coast]  was  described  to 
us  as  the  burial-place  of  an  extinct  race  of  kings  ;  and  it  is  said 
that  every  year,  at  the  feast  of  the  Fandroana  [the  New  Year's 
festival,  a  very  great  occasion  with  the  Malagasy],  a  herd  of 
cattle  gather  of  their  own  accord  at  the  spot,  whereupon  the  fat 
ones  die  of  themselves  without  waiting  for  the  butcher  ;  while 
the  lean  ones,  led  by  an  ancient  cow,  run  away,  to  return  to  the 
same  spot  and  go  through  the  same  course  of  procedure  the 
following  year.  We  were  also  assured  that  if  we  stood  there 
and  shouted,  no  matter  how  dry  the  day,  rain  would  surely  come." 

Omby  or  ombe,  the  native  word  for  ox,  is  an  equivalent  for 
"  chief,"  "  head,"  and  the  bull  is  held  as  sacred  among  the  Saka- 
lavas.  In  digging  out  the  foundations  for  a  new  gateway  to  the 
royal  courtyard  at  Antananarivo,  a  few  years  ago,  the  remains 
of  one  of  the  former  queen's  fighting  bulls  were  discovered, 
carefully  wrapped  in  a  red  lainba,  the  ample  cloth  forming  the 
outer  article  of  native  dress.^ 

Among  the  Sihanaka  tribe  any  one  who  sees  a  large  black 

^  The  close  connection  of  the  native  name  for  the  ox  with  many  Malagasy 
words  may  be  seen  from  the  following  examples  : — 
Omhalahinify,  eyetooth  ;  lit.,  "  bull-tooth." 
Oinbalahiiitdiigotra,  heel ;  lit.,  "  bull  of  foot." 

Ombalahi-fanbto,  lit.,  "bull-pounder,"  a  name  given  to  the  rice-pounder  when 
used  in  the  circumcision  ceremonies. 


1/6  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

moth  called  kakabemaso  {i.e.,  "the  enemy  with  many  eyes," 
alluding  to  the  eye-like  spots  on  its  wings)  is  believed  to  be 
liable  to  an  attack  of  a  disease  called  sbratra  or  trbmba.  The 
same  consequence  also  follows  seeing  the  bird  called  vbrondreo. 

A  native  evangelist  living  among  the  same  people  had  a 
hare-lipped  cow  and  two  rabbits.  These  animals  caused  much 
anxiety  to  the  superstitious  folks,  a  number  of  whom  waited 
upon  him,  and  requested  him  either  to  remove  or  kill  them, 
as  such  creatures  were  tabooed  amongst  them,  and  would  bring 
sickness  and  other  calamities  if  allowed  to  remain. 

Among  the  Hovas  a  bit  of  folk-lore  was  connected  with  the 
whale.  When  an  earthquake  shock  occurred  they  used  to  say, 
"  Mivadika  ny  trbzona  "  ("  The  whales  are  turning  over  ")  and 
"  Mampandro  ny  zanany  ny  irbzona  "  ("  The  whales  are  bathing 
their  children  "). 

Fabulous  animals. — Some  account  was  given  in  the  chapter 
already  referred  to  of  a  curious  belief  of  the  Betsileo  (central 
southern  Madagascar)  in  a  kind  of  transmigration  of  souls  ;  the 
spirits  of  those  of  noble  blood  being  supposed  to  enter  a  creature 
called  fandny,  variously  described  as  a  lizard,  a  worm,  and  a 
serpent,  which  is  regarded  with  idolatrous  reverence  by  the 
people.!  My  friend  Mr.  G.  A.  Shaw,  who  has  resided  for  many 
years  in  the  Betsileo  province,  has  kindly  given  me  some 
additional  particulars  as  to  this  curious  superstition.  He  says 
the  fanany  is  supposed  to  be  the  result  of  the  life  of  the  princes, 
and  to  come  from  below  the  left  armpit  ;  for  the  body,  when 
dead,  is  bound  tightly  to  one  of  the  posts  of  the  house,  and  the 
creature  that  appears  in  the  liquid  exuding  from  the  body  by 
the  pressure  applied  is,  they  say,  the  life.  This  creature  is 
carried  to  the  nearest  water,  river  or  otherwise,  which  from  that 

Oiubalahi-vola,  "  silver-bulls,"  are  small  ornaments  of  silver  about  an  inch 
long,  in  the  rude  shape  of  an  ox,  worn  about  the  wrist  or  chest  as  charms. 

Oinbalcihin'  Andriainaiiitra,  "  God's  bull,"  is  the  name  of  a  bead. 

Ombivblavita,  "oxen  finished  (?)  money,"  are  speckled  cattle,  frequently  used 
for  sacrifices  and  as  presents  to  the  sovereign  or  chief. 

^  Vide  ante,  Chapter  VIII.,  p.  163. 


MALAGASY  FOLK-LORE  AND  POPULAR  SUPERSTITIONS.    1 77 

time  becomes  fady  or  tabooed.  No  more  is  seen  of  it  (of  course;, 
but  they  think  it  is  not  killed,  but  changes  into  a  snake  or  lizard, 
or  some  animal  forming  a  connecting  link  between  these  two 
reptiles.  Here  native  authorities  differ,  some  asserting  that  it  has 
legs,  while  some  are  uncertain  whether  the  dona  (a  species  of 
serpent)  is  not  it.  When  one  of  these  is  found  the  chief  people 
from  the  district  assemble  round  it,  and  alternately  ask  it  if  it 
be  not  the  fanctny  of  such-an-one,  until  it  moves  its  head,  when 
they  consider  that  it  has  answered  in  the  affirmative.  It  is 
coaxed  on  to  a  clean  cloth,  an  ox  is  killed,  and  the  blood  set 
before  the  fanany,  which  is  then  carried  to  the  chief  village  of 
the  prince  to  whose  name  it  is  supposed  to  have  answered.  A 
great  feast  is  made  ;  oxen  are  killed  ;  rum  is  drunk  to  excess  ; 
and  at  last  the  creature  is  carried  to  the  same  tabooed  water 
into  which  the  worm  said  to  come  from  the  body  was  originall}' 
placed.  The  fanany,  they  say,  can  never  die  ;  if  decapitated 
another  head  grows;  if  cut  in  halves  the  missing  part  is  renewed; 
but  any  one  injuring  it  will  die.  The  belief  is  dying  out,  espe- 
cially since  such  confusion  of  ideas  exists  as  to  what  animal  is 
really  the  fanany. 

While  speaking  of  fabulous  animals  it  may  be  here  noted 
that  there  is,  in  Imerina  at  least,  some  trace  of  that  widespread 
belief  in  the  footprints  of  supernatural  beings,  giants,  mighty 
men,  and  gods.^  Rapeto,  traditionally  known  as  a  chief  of  the 
Vazimba,  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  interior  provinces, 
has  by  the  popular  imagination  been  magnified  into  a  giant,  and 
some  curious  holes  in  rocks  by  the  roadside,  four  or  five  miles 
north  of  Antananarivo,  are  supposed  to  be  his  footprints.  A 
good  deal  of  imaginative  power  is  requisite,  for  they  are  shape- 
less cavities,  probably  produced  by  the  action  of  rain-water.  A 
village  two  or  three  miles  west  of  the  capital  bears  the  name 
of  this  chief,  Ambohidrapeto,  i.e.,  the  town  of  Rapeto. 

Trees  and  plants. — In  the  times  when   bull-fighting  was 
common,  the  owners  of  the  bulls  held  a  plant  called  tsiva- 
^  See  Trior's  Early  Civilisation,  pp.  114-116. 
13 


178  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

londriana  in  their  hands  to  ensure  victory.  Concerning  a  hard- 
wooded  tree  called  hdzotbkana,  the  Malagasy  used  to  believe 
that  if  any  part  of  it  were  brought  into  the  house  the  rice-pans 
would  be  broken.  And  formerly,  the  root  of  a  plant  called 
vMkitia  was  brought  by  the  father  of  a  newly-born  child  (if  the 
first-born),  who  held  it  over  his  head  outside  the  house,  then 
dashed  it  on  the  ground  westwards,  with  the  idea  that  the  child 
was  in  some  way  or  other  benefited  thereby. 

In  addition  to  what  was  said  about  Malagasy  Ordeals  it  may 
be  noted  that  in  the  tangena  ordeal  the  poison  was  occasionally 
given  to  dogs  or  fowls,  instead  of  to  the  culprit  personally,  its 
effect  upon  these  being  the  test  of  guilt  or  innocence.  It  was 
believed  that  certain  charms  could  make  the  animals  die  ;  in 
the  case  of  a  dog  these  were  called  tblakainbbandrano. 

Although  the  use  of  the  tangena  ordeal  was  abolished  in 
Madagascar  by  an  article  in  the  Anglo-Malagasy  treaty  of  1865, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  still  believed  in  by  numbers  of 
the  people.  This  was  shown  unmistakably  in  April,  1878;  for 
the  prevalence  of  a  very  fatal  epidemic  fever  led  many  of  the 
people  in  a  village  only  a  few  miles  distant  from  the  capital 
to  resort  to  the  tangena,  several  dying  from  the  effects.  The 
Government,  however,  promptly  interfered  and  punished  severely 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  place.  Still  more  recently  attempts 
have  been  made  to  revive  the  custom. 

Folk-lore  of  home  and  family  life. — Among  the  Bara  there 
are  no  midwives,  or  rather,  the  midwives  are  men,  the  husbands 
and  elder  sons  doing  all  that  is  required  at  a  birth.  After 
giving  birth  to  a  child  the  mother  remains  in  the  house  four 
days. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  new  year  red  earth  used  to  be 
taken  from  some  specified  spot  and  put  at  the  foot  of  the  middle 
post  supporting  the  roof  of  the  house;  this  was  called  santataona, 
i.e.,  "  first  fruits  of  the  year." 

On  certain  occasions  a  cord  is  directed  by  the  diviners  to  be 
fastened  from  the  south-west  corner  of  the  house  to  the  north- 


MALAGASY  FOLK-LORE  AND  POPULAR  SUPERSTITIONS.    1 79 


east  (the  sacred)  corner  of  it ;  this  is  done  as  a  sorona  or  means 
of  obtaining  blessing,  and  is  called  tadivita,  i.e.,  "  finished  "  or 
"  perfected  cord." 

The  Tanala  (forest)  people,  as  regards  their  way  of  eating, 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes  :  from  the  boundaries  of  the 
river  Rianany,  going  southwards,  they  eat  with  wooden  spoons  ; 
but  going  northwards,  they  eat  with  leaves.  The  Zafimanelo 
tribe  lock  their  doors  when  at  their  meals,  and  hardly  any  one 
ever  sees  them  eating. 

Lucky  and  unlucky  actions,  &c. — Of  the  river  Fanindrona, 
in  Betsileo,  Mr.  Shaw  says  that,  although  it  is  a  splendid  river, 
"  on  account  of  the  superstition  of  the  people  deterring  them 
from  putting  a  canoe  on  it,  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles 
to  travelling  to  and  from  the  capital  in  the  wet  season.  In  one 
itinerating  journey  the  only  way  of  getting  the  writer's  goods 
across  was  by  balancing  them  upon  the  native  water  pitchers, 
and  a  man  swimming  on  each  side  propelling  the  cranky  vessel 
forward  ;  and  although  scarcely  a  year  passes  without  some 
being  drowned,  yet  no  inducement  is  sufficiently  strong  to  over- 
come their  superstitious  dread  of  allowing  a  canoe  to  be  used." 

Sickness  and  death. — Among  the  Hovas  the  rough  bier  on 
which  a  corpse  is  carried  is  called  trdnovbrona,  i.e.,  "bird's  house," 
possibly  from  the  idea  of  the  spirit  of  the  departed  having  flown 
away,  like  a  bird  from  its  cage.  A  whirlwind  {tadib)  is  supposed 
to  consist  of  the  ghosts  of  the  dead. 

The  sacredness  attached  to  royal  names  among  the  Hovas 
is  extended  after  the  death  of  the  sovereign  to  everything 
connected  with  their  tombs  and  funeral  ceremonies.^  Thus, 
they  do  not  say  of  a  king  that  he  has  died,  but  has  "  retired," 
miambbho,  lit.,  "  turned  his  back  "  upon  his  subjects,  or  has  "  gone 
home  to  lie  down,"  viodimdndry.  His  corpse  is  not  called  fdty, 
the  usual  word  for  that  of  a  subject,  but  ny  indsina,  "the  sacred" 
(thing)  ;  and  it  is  not  buried  {alevina),  but  "  hidden  "  {afcnina)  ; 
and  his  tomb  is  not  a  fdsana,  but  trdjio  indsina,  "  the  sacred 
^  Vide  ante,  Chap.  VIII.,  pp.  151,  152. 


l8o  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

house,"  in  which  is  hidden  the  silver  coffin,  which  is  termed 
lakainbola,  "the  silver  canoe."  Everything,  in  short,  is  specialised 
by  a  name  different  from  that  applied  to  the  same  thing  in  con- 
nection with  the  people  generally,  whether  nobles  or  otherwise. 

The  Rev.  W.  D.  Cowan,  in  speaking  of  the  epidemic  of 
malarial  fever  in  the  Betsileo  province  in  1878-79,  says:  "One 
curious  coincidence  may  be  mentioned.  The  town  and  its 
suburbs  were  visited  by  an  epidemic  of  catarrh.  The  natives 
at  once  said  that  locusts  were  near  at  hand.  At  this  time  we 
had  heard  of  no  locusts  being  in  the  neighbourhood,  but,  strange 
to  say,  they  appeared  in  great  numbers  within  the  week." 

Witchcraft  and  charms. — By  mixing  charms  with  the  dust 
a  person  had  trodden  upon  it  was  supposed  that  a  disease  called 
raodia  {rao  ^-  j'aoka,  gathered,  collected,  dia,  footstep)  would  be 
caused  to  that  person. 

Of  the  Betsileo  charms,  Mr.  Shaw  says  they  consist  "  for  the 
most  part  of  pieces  of  wood  about  a  span  in  length,  cut  from 
various  trees,  some  growing  only,  it  is  said,  in  distant  places, 
and  hence  costing  considerable  sums  of  money ; "  and  that  he 
had  in  his  possession  between  twenty  and  thirty  bdy,  of  each 
of  which  he  had  ascertained  the  use.  Some  are  believed  in 
simply  as  medicine,  the  sticks  being  rubbed  on  a  stone,  and  the 
dust  thus  grated  off  eaten  by  the  sick.  One  is  used  as  an  anti- 
dote to  any  poison  an  enemy  may  have  placed  in  the  food  ; 
while  others  are  efficacious  for  curing  cuts  and  open  wounds, 
delirium,  sudden  illness,  and  as  protection  from  thieves,  lightning, 
crocodiles,  &c. 

Of  the  Sihanaka,  the  Rev.  J.  Pearse  says:  "In  1877  large 
numbers  of  the  people  wore  a  single  grain  of  Indian  corn  around 
their  neck  as  a  talisman  against  a  disease  which,  it  was  affirmed, 
a  Tenrec  (one  of  the  Ce7itetidce,  hedgehog-like  animals)  had 
announced  would  appear.  During  this  year  a  similar  story 
agitated  the  people.  In  the  month  of  February  a  report  was 
circulated  that  a  dog  had  spoken,  and  announced  that  a  hurri- 
cane causing  grievous  famine  would  devastate  the  district,  that 


MALAGASY  FOLK-LORE  AND  POPULAR  SUPERSTITIONS.  l8l 


immense  hailstones  would  descend,  and  that  even  the  heavens 
would  fall.  To  prevent  this  calamity  the  people  were  told  to 
get  six  black  and  six  white  beads,  and  to  wear  them  round  the 
neck,  as  that  would  prevent  any  harm  overtaking  the  wearer. 
The  result  was  that  men,  women,  and  children  were  seen  with 
these  twelve  beads  hung  round  the  neck  as  a  charm."  They 
also  wear  two  white  and  two  black  beads  to  cause  rain  to  fall, 
but  if  the  string  be  broken  the  charm  is  useless. 

THE  FOOD  AND  "  FADY "  OF  THE  SIHANAKA.^ 

Of  late  years  a  good  deal  has  been  written  in  the  Antanana- 
rivo Annual  diwd  elsewhere  about  the  Antsihanaka  province  in 
N.E.  Madagascar.  But  of  the  people,  the  Sihanaka,  of  their 
manners  and  customs,  less  has  been  written  than  of  their 
country,  and  scope  may  still  be  found  for  a  few  remarks  on  their 
"  Food  and  Fddyr 

The  Sihanaka  are  no  exception  to  the  rule  in  Madagascar  as 
to  their  staple  diet,  viz.,  rice,  which  is  plentiful  and  very  easily 
cultivated  ;  but  owing  to  the  imprudence  of  the  people,  and 
probably  also  to  their  laziness,  the  supply  sometimes  runs  short, 
when  they  are  reduced  to  considerable  straits.  Those  living  on 
the  eastern  border  of  the  province  on  the  edge  of  the  forest  are 
in  a  less  fortunate  position  than  their  neighbours  with  regard  to 
their  rice-fields,  as  very  little  suitable  ground  is  available  ;  and 
when,  to  make  up  the  deficiency,  they  plant  manioc  and  sweet 
potato,  the  wild  boars  chiefly  reap  the  benefit. 

But  the  food  of  the  Sihanaka  includes  far  more  than  rice  and 
presents  great  variety  and  some  considerable  broadness  of  taste, 
as  my  readers  will  acknowledge  when  they  hear  that  rats, 
snakes,  and  owls  are  included  in  the  list  of  food-stuffs,  not  to 
mention  crocodiles,  and  even  cats  !  To  be  just,  however,  it  is 
right  to  state,  that  of  these  only  the  cat  is  strictly  a  Sihanaka 
dish,  its  flesh  being  a  delicacy  which  they  compare  to  goose. 

^  Vide  Autananafivo  Annual,  Vol.  IV.  p.  301  ct  scq. 


1 82  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

The  crocodile  was  not  originally  used  as  food,  as  to  eat  its  flesh 
seemed  a  too  near  approach  to  cannibalism  ;  but  of  later  years 
some  have  come  to  consider  it  waste  not  to  consume  what  is  to 
hand  in  such  abundance.  With  regard  to  snakes,  their  resem- 
blance to  eels  is  the  attraction.  Rats  and  owls  are  only  very 
occasional  dishes,  and  not  by  any  means  generally  appreciated, 
but  the  Sihanaka  seem  to  have  something  of  Radama  II.'s  turn 
of  mind  when  he  wished  to  know  the  distinctive  merits  of  things 
of  all  sorts  as  food,  and  caused  them  to  be  tasted. 

Besides  these  very  striking  articles  of  diet,  there  are  others 
which,  to  most  of  us,  would  be  little  more  inviting,  but  which  are 
eaten  by  most  Malagasy,  viz.,  the  various  animals,  &c.,  found  in 
the  forest,  including  the  different  kinds  of  lemur,  the  fbsa,  the 
wild  boar,  and  many  other  creatures.  Finally,  and  in  common 
with  the  Europeans  in  its  neighbourhood,  the  Sihanaka  find  a 
never-failing  source  of  appetising  food  in  the  fish  and  wild  fowl 
of  Lake  Alaotra,  and  their  free  indulgence  in  the  former  may 
prove  evidence  for  the  fish  theory  in  leprosy,  as  lepers  are 
plentiful  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  lake. 

The  first  division  of  the  title  of  this  paper  is  a  very  familiar 
subject  to  us  all,  but  as  to  the  word  fady,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
explain  that  it  signifies  that  which  is  tabooed.  Malagasy  fady 
is  a  large  subject,  as  may  be  seen  from  Mr.  Standing's  interest- 
ing account  of  it  in  the  Antananarivo  Annual  (Vol.  II.,  No.  vii., 

1883). 

It  is  a  pleasing  fact,  however,  that  while  writing  on  the  fddy 
of  the  Sihanaka  one  is  treating  of  a  subject  which  is  certainly 
losing  weight  with  those  whom  it  most  concerns,  for  superstition 
in  Antsihanaka  is  being  gradually  cleared  away  by  Christianity 
and  civilisation. 

As  far  as  I  can  ascertain  there  are  comparatively  few  things 
which  are  fddy  common  to  all  the  Sihanaka  ;  of  these  few,  to 
work  their  rice-fields  on  a  Thursday  seems  to  be  the  most  im- 
portant as  this  may  in  no  case  be  done.  To  build  brick  or  mud 
houses  is  not  permitted,  death  being  the  supposed  penalty  in 


MALAGASY  FOLK-LORE  AND  POPULAR  SUPERSTITIONS.    1 83 

case  of  transgression.  To  use  hemp,  either  in  the  form  of  cloth 
or  for  smoking,  is  also  universally  tabooed.  The  last-named 
fady  is  remarkable  from  the  fact  that  it  is  very  unusual  for  the 
Malagasy  to  mifady  (verb  from  fady)  anything  which  is  really 
injurious,  and  no  doubt  to  smoke  hemp  is  so ;  for  instance,  rum 
is  never  refrained  from  on  the  same  grounds  that  other  things 
are  tabooed,  that  is  by  entire  families  and  tribes.  Many  Siha- 
naka  abstain  most  rigidly  from  pork,  objecting  to  use  ointment 
which  they  fear  may  be  prepared  with  lard,  and  even  refusing  to 
carry  a  load  which  they  suspect  to  contain  it ;  neither  may  their 
food  be  cooked  in  pots  or  pans  previously  used  for  cooking  pork  ; 
nevertheless  they  may  eat  the  flesh  of  the  wild  boar,  which  seems 
rather  inconsistent. 

Besides  the  fddy  common  to  all  Sihanaka,  each  family  or  clan 
has  inherited  a  set  of  fddy  of  its  own  ;  so  in  addition  to  the  uni- 
versal fddy  for  Thursday,  there  will  be  another  day  of  the  week 
on  which  nothing  may  be  taken  out  of  the  house,  the  mats  may 
not  be  swept,  &c.,  &c.  Some  families  may  not  sell  eggs,  and 
others  may  not  sell  anything  which  they  have  inherited,  except- 
ing cattle.  Various  foods  too  numerous  to  mention  are  included 
in  this  class  of  fddy.  Others,  again,  abstain  from  tobacco,  and 
there  are  some  insects  and  birds  which  may  not  be  killed,  and 
certain  woods  which  may  not  be  used  for  fuel.  The  foregoing 
are  family  fddy,  but  there  are  some  which  pertain  to  individuals 
only  ;  and  then  again  there  are  the  fddy  of  places  or  fddin-tdny. 

Separate  villages,  again,  have  their  fddy,  and  certain  things 
may  not  be  taken  into  them.  At  Imerimandroso  water-pots 
with  broken  rims,  and  rushes  which  have  not  lain  overnight  to 
dry  after  being  cut  down,  are  fddy,  and  may  not  be  taken  into 
the  town  ;  also  the  pad  of  grass  which  a  woman  wears  on  her 
head  when  carrying  her  water-pot  must  be  perfect,  i.e.,  without  a 
hole  in  it,  or  it  comes  under  the  same  ban.  At  other  places 
these  things  would  be  considered  harmless,  while  other  equally 
innocent  practices  would  bring  down  all  manner  of  evil  on  the 
heads  of  the  inhabitants.    Water  also  has  its  fddy,  and  to  carry 


1 84  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

lard  across  Lake  Alaotra  is  to  ensure  rough  weather,  to  pour  oil 
on  the  troubled  waters  might  then  prove  a  curse,  it  being  too 
near  a  relation  of  the  lard. 

Besides  the  universal  fady,  the  fady  of  families,  of  individuals, 
and  of  places,  we  have  fady  for  particular  circumstances  and  for 
certain  classes,  and  finally  the  fadin-ody,  i.e.^  the  fady  of  medi- 
cines. In  sickness  it  is  usual  to  abstain  from  eating  chicken  even 
before  taking  the  medicine,  which  will  require  abstinence  from  a 
great  variety  of  things.  Nursing  mothers  must  inifady  the  flesh 
of  calves  if  they  have  not  been  separated  from  their  mothers, 
lest  they  should  have  to  mourn  their  children  as  the  cows  do 
their  calves  ;  moreover  they  may  not  eat  a  certain  sort  of  banana 
until  the  baby  can  pronounce  the  name  of  it,  neither  may  they 
look  at  a  child's  corpse.  Young  women  must  refrain  from  eating 
rice  on  a  certain  day  every  year. 

Of  all  the  fady,  however,  the  fadin-ody  seem  to  be  the  most 
onerous,  not  to  mention  the  preparation  of  the  medicine  itself, 
which  sometimes  involves  twelve  or  more  pots  containing  many 
and  various  leaves,  roots,  &c.,  being  kept  boiling  at  the  same 
time.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  fadin-ody  :  the  eating  of 
anything  in  the  form  of  herbs  or  vegetables,  fresh  beef,  fresh  fish, 
chicken,  eggs  and  other  wholesome  foods  ;  allowing  any  one  to 
enter  the  house  of  the  sick  wearing  a  garment  not  made  all  in 
one  piece,  or  with  freshly  plaited  hair ;  or  answering  any  one 
speaking  outside  the  house.  It  is  also  fady  for  the  sick  to  look 
at  the  sun  rising  or  setting,  or  at  anything  red,  or  to  lie  down  at 
sunset.  The  traders  from  Imerina  have  introduced  new  fady  in 
connection  with  foreign  medicines,  such  as  iodide  of  potassium  ; 
salt,  rum,  and  cayenne  pepper  the  people  are  told  to  refrain  from. 
The  traders  do  this,  no  doubt,  to  secure  a  better  sale  for  their 
wares,  for  the  Sihanaka  have  little  faith  in  a  medicine  which  has 
no  fady  in  connection  with  it.  The  very  latest  fady  which  has 
come  under  my  notice,  and  one  I  should  think  of  recent  inven- 
tion, is  very  peculiar  :  a  child  is  not  allowed  to  accept  a  picture, 
lest  it  should  be  followed  by  European  ghosts ! 


MALAGASY  P^OLK-LORE  AND  POPULAR  SUPERSTITIONS.    1 85 


SOME  POPULAR  MALAGASY  SUPERSTITIONS.^ 

Many  of  the  Malagasy  beliefs  to  be  here  described  show  great 
resemblance  to  those  which  are  found  both  in  Europe  and  else- 
where. They  are  of  some  value  for  the  study  of  the  daily  life 
and  habits  of  thought  of  the  Malagasy,  showing  what  occupies 
their  thoughts,  and  how  they  think. 

I.  Good  Omens,  or  Tokens  of  Good  Luck. — The  saying  of 
Caesar  that  people  believe  what  they  wish  to  believe  is,  to  a 
large  extent,  true,  and  they  usually  look  out  for  signs  of  good 
fortune  and  prosperity.  This  the  Malagasy  seem  to  have  done 
with  no  small  diligence,  for  among  the  signs  of  what  may 
happen  which  I  have  gathered  no  small  portion  refers  to  the 
good  they  expect  to  obtain.  Thorough  materialists  they  seem 
to  be,  for  of  the  various  good  omens  in  which  they  believe  the 
great  majority  refer  to  obtaining/t^^?^  a7id  ricJies.  The  following 
nine  examples  refer  to  food  ;  and  that  the  four  of  these  have 
reference  to  beef  will  surprise  no  one  who  has  seen  Malagasy 
gather  round  a  slaughtered  ox.  The  nine  examples  are  as 
follows  : — 

\Yhen  eating  sweet-potatoes,  if  some  portion  falls  out  of  the  mouth,  it  is  a 

sign  that  one  will  get  potatoes  to  eat. 
When  eating  potatoes,  if  some  portion  falls  down,  one  will  get  manioc  to 

eat. 

When  eating,  manioc,  if  some  portion  falls  down,  one  will  get  maize  to  eat. 
When  eating  maize,  it  some  portion  falls  down,  one  will  get  rice  to  eat. 
When  eating  rice,  if  some  portion  falls  down,  one  will  get  beef  to  eat. 
When  eating  beef,  if  some  portion  falls  down,  one  will  get  honey  to  eat. 

The  climax  is  of  course  clear  ;  we  are  proceeding  from  the 
simpler  to  the  better  sorts  of  food.  Of  what,  according  to 
Malagasy  notions,  is  one  class  of  food,  roots  and  grain,  viz., 
rice  is  the  highest  ("  Rice  is  andriamanitra  "  [god],  said  an  old 
man  once  to  me) ;  then  comes  the  other  class,  what  is  eaten 
with  the  rice,  &c.  {laokd),  and  of  this  class,  honey,  remarkably 
enough,  is  reckoned  higher  than  meat.    As  meat,  however,  is  a 

'  Vide  Antananarivo  Annual,  Yol.  II.,  Xo.  viii.,  1884,  p.  27. 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


very  valued  article  of  food,  we  find  other  tokens  for  obtaining 
it,  for 

When  one  stumbles  on  going  out,  he  will  eat  meat ;  and  so  also  unll  he  do, 
When  a  fly  comes  into  one's  mouth,  and 
When  one  treads  on  an  animal  going  out. 

The  Malagasy  are  very  fond  of  money,  and  it  is  quite  in 
accordance  with  what  we  should  expect  to  find  that  they  have 
several  signs  betokening  that  they  will  become  rich.  Some  such 
lucky  omens  with  regard  to  getting  wealth  are  the  following  : — 

When  the  rice,  while  being  cooked,  makes  a  border. 

When  the  rice,  while  being  cooked,  swells  in  the  middle. 

When  one  has  a  boil  on  the  shoulder. 

If  any  one  finds  fifteen  maize  stalks  standing  in  a  row. 

If  any  one  has  red  hair  on  the  top  of  the  head  or  on  the  nape  of  the  neck. 

If  any  one  does  not  arrive  in  time  for  the  meal. 

Some  omens  refer  to  obtaining  a  certain  kind  of  riches,  as 
abundance  of  rice,  as  do  the  following  : — 

When  a  hedgehog  (Trandraka)  is  not  properly  buried,  the  rice  will  grow 

well  ;  and  this  will  also  be  the  case 
When  one  gets  sore  eyes. 

Other  events,  the  occurrence  of  which  must  be  considered  as 
fortunate,  and  for  which  omens  are  found,  are  the  following  : — 

When  one  has  white  hairs  appearing  while  still  young,  he  will  live  to  be  old. 
If,  when  going  on  a  journey,  one  is  met  by  a  crow  (Goaika),  the  journey  will 

be  a  lucky  one  ;  and  so  it  will  also  be 
If  one  is  met  by  the  kestrel-hawk  {H)tsik)tsika  ') 

2.  Evil  Omens,  or  Tokens  of  Calamity. — Many  of  these  are 
signs  of  calamity  {ISza^  in  general,  as  are  the  following : — 

When  a  Takatra-  (the  tufted  umber)  crosses  the  village,  some  calamity  will 
happen  ;  as  also 

When  the  walls  of  a  house  crack  in  two  places  [opposite  to  each  other  ;  also 

When  a  hen  crows-;  and 

When  a  hen  lays  small  eggs  ;  and 

When  a  hen  eats  her  own  eggs  ;  and 

When  one  sees  an  Andr6n<^o  (a  small  lizard)  with  two  tails. 


^  Tinnuncnliis  Newtonii,  Gum.  ^  Scopus  unibrelta,  Gurn. 


MALAGASY  FOLK-LORE  AND  POPULAR  SUPERSTITIONS.  187 


Some  omens  have  relation  to  famine,  as  the  following : — 

When  the  dogs  eat  unboiled  manioc. 
When  the  dogs  dig  up  earth-nuts  {volinjo)} 

When  the  opening  in  the  Tsikinty's''  nest  turns  another  way  than  is  usually 
the  case  ;  aud 

When  the  cry  of  the  cuckoo  {Kankhfotra  3),  is  heard,  the  rice  will  not  grow. 

Some  bad  omens  refer  to  trade  and  travelling,  as  do  the 
following  : — 

When  a  trader  on  his  way  out  is  met  by  a  certain  hawk  {/ihlaka*)  he  will 
have  no  success  ;  and 

When  a  traveller  is  met  by  a  Takatni  on  the  road,  he  w^ill  meet  with  some- 
thing unfortunate  during  his  journey. 

Certain  things  are  regarded  as  signs  of  coining  poverty,  as 
the  following  : — 

When  some  one  comes  in  unexpectedly  to  a  meal  ;  and 
When  one  has  speckled  finger  nails. 

Several  are  signs  of  death,  as  the  following  : — 

When  the  eyelashes  quiver,  one  will  hear  of  death  ;  as  also 
When  one's  left  ear  tingles,  one  will  hear  about  death  being  near  ;  and 
When  one's  right  ear  tingles,  one  will  hear  about  death  being  far  off. 
When  the  antamba's^  cry  is  heard  near  the  house,  somebody  will  die  ;  and 
When  one  is  met  by  a  snake,  one  will  hear  about  death. 

The  superstition  about  the  cry  of  the  antdmba  reminds  us  of  the 
evil  significance  of  the  cry  of  the  owl,  believed  in  in  European 
countries.^ 

3.  Weather  Prognostics. — Of  these  there  are  probably  many, 
but  I  have  only  collected  a  few,  as  follows  : — 

^  Voandzcia  snhterranea,  Thouars. 

^  A  species  of  Weaver-finch,  Spcrnicstcs  nana,  Pucher. 

3  Cnailits  Rochii,  Hartl. 

4  A  species  of  Long-legged  Hawk,  Polyboroidcs  radiatiis,  Scop. 

5  A  mythical  animal. 

^  The  screech  of  some  of  the  Madagascar  owls  at  night  has  probably  given 
rise  to  this  superstition.    It  is  certainly  fearful  enough  to  suggest  evil. 


i88 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


When  the  swallow  {S'idiiits)dina    flies  low,  there  will  be  rain. 
When  the  screech  of  the  owl  {Katbroka  ^)  is  heard,  drizzling  rain  {crika) 
will  fall. 

When  the  lark  {Sorohifra  3)  makes  a  deep  nest,  heavy  rain  will  fall. 

When  the  rain  beats  on  the  south-west  corner  of  the  house,  there  will  be 

heavy  rain  ;  and 
When  it  beats  on  the  south-east  corner,  only  a  little  rain  will  fall. 

4.  OtJm'  Portents  of  Various  Kinds. — There  are  some 
portents  where  a  remarkable  Hkeness  between  the  thing  which 
is  regarded  as  a  sign  and  the  thing  or  event  signified  seems  to 
be  the  main  idea.    Thus  we  are  told  that 

When  a  hen  crows,  there  will  be  a  female  sovereign  ;  and 
When  any  one  having  teeth  set  apart  (inakdka  infy')  plants  maize,  the  plants 
will-grow  far  apart ;  while,  011  the  other  hand,  if  those  who  plant  maize 
cari->'  a  child  on  their  back,  they  will  have  produce  '*  with  many 
children,"  i.e.,  an  abundant  hai-vest. 

No  less  strange  than  these  is  the  notion  that 

If  a  woman  maintains  a  ci'ooked  or  bending  posture  when  arranging  eggs  in 
a  nest  to  be  hatched,  the  chickens  will  have  crooked  necks. 

The  Malagasy  are  a  very  hospitable  people,  and  they  have 
some  signs  which  denote  the  arrival  of  strangers,  for 

When  the  hens  cackle  at  the  door,  strangers  are  coming  ;  as  also 

When  any  one  is  digging  manioc,  and  the  root  is  struck  by  the  spade  ;  and 

When  people  get  sleepy  in  the  middle  of  the  day  ;  and 

When  a  spider  falls  down  in  the  house. 

Two  very  amusing  ones  relating  to  household  affairs  are  as 
follows  : — 

If  the  walls  of  the  house  (when  not  well  built)  incline  towards  the  south,  the 

wife  will  be  the  stronger  one  in  the  house  ;  ichciras 
If  the  walls  incline  towards  the  north,  the  husband  will  have  the  best  of  it. 

5.  Dreams. — The  Malagasy  of  course,  as  is  the  case  with 
all  other  nations,  notice  their  dreams  and  regard  them  as  signs 
of  what  will  happen  to  them.    They  are  also  troubled  by  their 

^  More  exactly,  the  Edible-nest-building  Swiftlet,  Collocalia  francica,  Gon. 
^  A  name  given  to  two  species  of  this  bird  :  the  Madagascar  Scops  Owl, 
Scops  rutilis,  Pucher  ;  and  a  Hairy-footed  Owl,  Xinox  snperciliaris,  Vieill. 
3  Aland  a  hova,  Hartl. 


MALAGASY  FOLK-LORE  AND  POPULAR  SUPERSTITIONS.    1 89 


dreams,  and  consider  what  natural  causes  there  might  be  for 
them,  so  as  to  counteract  the  evil  forebodings  which  some  of 
them  suggest.  They  "  console  their  hearts  "  when  they  have 
had  an  evil  dream  by  saying :  "  Winter  dream,  it  is  unmeaning 
chatter ;  summer  dream,  it  will  be  taken  away  by  the  streams 
(swollen  to  a  larger  degree  than  usual  by  the  heavy  rains)  ; 
spring  dream,  the  dry  soil  will  absorb  it ;  autumn  dream,  we 
are  too  satiated  (by  the  recently  harvested  rice),  and  it  chatters 
to  no  purpose." 

In  many  cases  there  seems  to  be  some  connection  between 
the  dream  and  that  which  it  is  regarded  as  a  sign  of ;  some- 
times this  connection  is  shown  by  the  similiarity  of  the  two,  but 
sometimes  by  the  contradiction  between  them,  the  dream  really 
denoting  the  very  reverse  of  what  one  would  have  supposed  it 
to  signify.  A  few  instances,  in  which  a  certain  similarity  is 
apparent,  are  as  follows  : — 

When  one  dreams  that  he  is  going  to  cross  a  river  and  does  not  get  over,  he 

will  soon  die  ;  as  also 
When  one  dreams  that  he  is  speaking  with  the  dead,^  and  submits  to  their 

calling  for  him. 

When  one  is  ill  and  dreams  that  the  dead  bring  him  medicine,  he  will 
recover. 

When  one  dreams  about  blood,  he  will  have  a  fight  with  some  one. 

If  any  one  dreams  that  he  meets  the  Sovereign,  he  will  get  a  high  position. 

If  any  one  dreams  that  his  spoon  is  lost,  there  will  be  famine  ;  but 

If  one  dreams  that  he  is  buying  a  large  spoon,  the  season  will  be  fruitful. 

More  often,  however,  the  very  reverse  of  what  is  dreamt  of 
is  believed  to  be  about  to  happen,  as  in  the  following : — 

When  one  dreams  that  he  has  made  a  lucky  hit  in  trading,  he  will  lose  in  his 
bargain. 

When  one  dreams  that  he  is  eating  with  the  dead,  he  will  live  long  ;  ^75  also 


*  The  Malagasy  have  a  very  strong  belief  in  life  after  death.  Very  interesting 
are  the  words  of  Andrianampoinimerina  shortly  before  his  death  :  "  My  flesh 
will  be  buried,  but  my  spirit  and  my  mind  will  still  be  with  you  [i.e.,  his  subjects) 
and  Radama  ;"  and,  "I  will  not  go  away,  but  shall  still  whisper  to  him"  (i.e., 
to  Radama). — Malagasy  Kabdiy  ;  collected  by  W.  E.  Cousins  (p.  7). 


190  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

When  one  dreams  about  a  tomb. 

When  one  has  lost  an\'thing  and  dreams  that  it  will  be  found,  he  will  not 

find  it  ;  whereas 
If  he  dreams  that  he  does  not  find  it,  he  will  find  it  very  soon. 
If  one  dreams  about  a  green  tree,  some  one  will  die. 

If  anj'  one  is  ill,  and  some  one  else  dreams  that  he  is  getting  better,  he  will 

be  ill  for  a  long  time. 
If  one  dreams  that  he  is  crossing  a  river  where  there  are  many  crocodiles, 

he  will  prosper  in  the  business  he  is  undertaking. 
If  any  one  who  is  far  from  home  dreams  that  he  has  returned  home,  he  will 

die  on  the  road. 

In  the  other  dreams  which  I  have  noticed  there  seems  to  be 
nothing  indicating  any  correspondence  between  the  thing  dreamt 
of  and  that  which  is  supposed  to  be  signified  by  it.  Some 
examples  are  as  follows  : — 

When  one  dreams  that  he  is  flying,  he  will  die. 

When  one  dreams  that  he  is  out  catching  fish,  he  will  meet  with  some 
calamity. 

When  one  dreams  about  a  fight  between  red  oxen,  or 

When  one  dreams  about  fire,  he  will  be  conquered  by  his  enemies. 

When  one  dreams  about  red  soil  (the  soil  here  in  the  interior  is  mainly  dark 

red  in  colour),  he  will  come  to  poverty. 
When  one  dreams  that  he  is  falling  down  from  a  precipice  (the  dream  of 

young  people  everywhere),  he  will  be  taken  ill  ;  as  also 
If  one  dreams  that  he  is  crossing  dirty  water. 
When  one  dreams  that  he  is  drinking  brandy,  he  will  get  well. 
When  one  dreams  about  fog,  he  will  lose  his  oxen. 

When  one  dreams  that  mice  are  pursuing  him,  somebody  will  take  away 
his  wife. 


BETSIMISAK.nK  ,     .  m.meN. 


CHAPTER  X. 


^lALAGASY  ORATORY,  ORXAMEXTS  OF  SPEECH,  SYM- 
BOLIC ACTIOXS,  AXD  COXUXDRUMS. 

Folk-lore — Folk-tales — Proverbs — Kabary — Oratory  and  figures  of  speech — The 
desolate  one — Mutual  love — The  bird — A  divorced  wife — Transitoriness  of 
life — Bereavement — Death — Imagination — Boasting — The  crocodile — A  place 
for  everything — Filial  love — Friendship — Thanksgiving — Evil  speech — Sym- 
bolic acts— The  two  kings— The  heir  to  the  throne— Riddles  and  conun- 
drums. 

THE  most  valuable  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  Mala- 
gasy Folk-tales  has  been  n^ade  by  the  Rev.  Lars  Dahle,  of 
the  Norwegian  Lutheran  Mission,  who  published  at  Antananarivo 
in  the  early  part  of  1877  a  volume  entitled  Specimens  of  Mala- 
gasy Folk-Lore.  Except  the  preface  and  title-page,  this  volume 
is  entirely  in  Malagasy,  and  is  therefore  a  sealed  book  to  those 
who  are  unacquainted  with  the  language  in  which  it  is  written. 

In  1877,  several  Europeans  residing  at  Antananarivo  formed 
a  little  society  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  and  printing  the 
Folk-lore  of  Madagascar,  such  as  tales,  fables  and  allegories, 
proverbs,  public  speeches,  &c.  Twelve  numbers  of  the  publica- 
tions of  this  society  were  issued  at  somewhat  irregular  intervals, 
the  whole  forming  a  volume  of  288  pages  (1886).^  In  addi- 
tion to  the  subjects  already  mentioned,  this  volume  contains 
specimens  of  native  riddles,  and  of  rhymes  which  are  a  species 
of  mnemonics,  intended  to  aid  in  the  learning  of  the  numbers  in 
arithmetic.  Of  these  varied  contents  also  I  propose  to  give 
specimens  and  translations. 

*  Folk-lore  aiid  Folk-tales  of  Madagascar.    L.M.S.  Press. 
191 


192  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

In  the  year  1871  the  Rev.  W.  E.  Cousins  and  Mr.  J.  Parrett 
published  a  small  volume  of  76  pp.,  containing  1,477  Malagasy 
Proverbs,  a  branch  of  native  traditional  wisdom  in  which  the 
language  is  very  rich.  A  second  and  much  enlarged  edition 
of  this  work  was  published  in  1885,  containing  3,790  proverbs 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  so  as  to  be  easily  found.  And  in 
the  year  1882  the  Rev.  J.  A.  Houlder  completed  a  work  upon 
Malagasy  proverbs,  arranging  them  according  to  their  subjects 
under  a  number  of  heads,  giving  also  racy  English  translations 
and  numerous  illustrative  notes.  After  a  long  delay  this  care- 
fully arranged  book  is  now  in  course  of  publication  in  the 
Antananarivo  Annual. 

In  1873,  M''-  Cousins  published  another  small  volume  con- 
taining twenty-six  Kabary  or  royal  and  other  speeches  and  pro- 
clamations, dating  from  1787  to  1872.  These  public  addresses 
are  not  only  of  considerable  interest  as  historical  documents, 
but  they  have  a  great  value  as  preserving  archaic  words  and 
obsolete  or  obsolescent  forms  of  conversation,  and  thus  throwing 
important  light  upon  the  language. 

Three  years  later  still  (in  1876),  Mr.  Cousins  issued  another 
small  volume  containing  native  accounts  of  Malagasy  customs, 
including  the  circumcision  observances,  the  administration  of 
the  Tangena  poison-ordeal,  marriage  and  burial  ceremonies, 
and  those  connected  with  the  New  Year's  festival,  &c.  Use  has 
been  made  of  many  of  these  in  some  of  the  chapters  in  the 
writer's  book,  The  Great  African  Z$-/<2;2<^  (Trlibner,  1880). 

Mention  must  also  be  made  of  a  work  in  Malagasy,  which 
was  printed  at  the  Jesuit  Mission  Press  in  Antananarivo  at 
intervals  between  the  years  1873  ^.nd  1881.  This  is  a  publication 
in  three  crown  octavo  volumes  containing  altogether  about 
2,059  p3-&ss,  and  is  a  Histojy  of  the  Kings  of  Imerina  (the 
central  province),  derived  from  native  sources,  that  is,  manu- 
scripts written  during  the  last  few  years,  and  traditions.  This 
work  gives,  in  addition  to  the  political  history,  a  considerable 
amount  of  information  about  the  native  customs,  as  they  are 


ORATORY,  SYMBOLIC  ACTIONS,  AND  CONUNDRUMS.  193 

supposed  to  have  successively  arisen  from  the  earHest  times, 
including  not  a  little  folk-lore,  and  native  beliefs  as  to  supposed 
supernatural  beings,  divination,  witchcraft,  the  idols,  &c. 

Several  articles  containing  information  on  folk-lore  are  also 
included  in  the  contents  of  a  Malagasy  work  entitled  Isan-kerin- 
tao7za,  or  "Annual,"  but  of  which  only  two  volumes  (for  1876 
and  1877)  were  published  at  the  press  of  the  Friends'  Mission  in 
Antananarivo. 

The  substance  of  this  chapter  was  given  in  various  numbers 
of  the  Folk-lore  Journal  for  1883  and  1884,  as  well  as  a  selection 
from  Malagasy  folk-tales.  But  as  the  proceedings  of  learned 
societies  are  but  little  known  to  the  general  reader,  I  have 
thought  it  well  to  produce  in  this  volume  most  of  the  informa- 
tion there  given. 

Fuller  particulars  as  to  minor  papers  and  articles  referring 
to  Malagasy  folk-lore,  folk-tales,  songs,  and  popular  superstitions 
may  be  found  by  those  interested  in  the  subject  in  an  article  in 
the  Antananarivo  Annual  for  1889  (No.  XIII.  pp.  29-32),  under 
the  same  title  as  this  chapter. 

Section  I. :  Oratory  and  Figures  of  Speech. — The 
first  of  the  nine  sections  into  which  Mr.  Dahle's  book  is  divided 
treats  of  Hain-teny  Idvaldva,  lit.,  "  Somewhat  lengthy  clever 
speeches,"  i.e.,  Oratorical  Flourishes  and  Ornaments  of  Speech, 
which  are  occasionally  expanded  into  an  allegory.  As  with 
many  peoples  of  lively  imagination,  but  who  have  had  no 
literature,  the  Malagasy  are,  as  a  rule,  ready  and  fluent  speakers, 
and  many  of  them  have  considerable  oratorical  powers.  The 
native  language  is  pleasant  and  musical  in  its  sounds,  full  of 
vowels  and  liquids,  and  free  from  all  harsh  and  guttural  utter- 
ances ;  and  the  mental  habits  of  the  people  induce  a  great 
amount  of  illustration  in  their  ordinary  speech,  which  is  full  of 
proverbs  and  similes.  In  their  more  formal  and  public  addresses 
these  are  also  found  in  abundance,  as  w^ell  as  allegories,  fables, 
and  figures  derived  largely  from  natural  objects. 

14 


194 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


Here  is  one  of  the  first  examples,  which  is  entitled, 

The  Desolate  {one)  forsaken  by  Friends. 

1  (am)  a  straggling  piece  of  peel  from  the  3'Oung  shoots  of  the  plantain 
tree  ;  but  when  I  still  had  possessions,  while  I  still  was  in  happy  circum- 
stances, then  I  was  loved  by  both  father's  and  mother's  relations.  When  I 
spake,  they  were  shamefaced  ;  when  I  admonished,  they  submitted  ;  so 
that  I  was  to  father's  relatives  their  protection  '  and  glory,  and  to  mother's 
relatives  the  wide-sheltering  sunshade  ;  and  was  to  them  (as)  the  calf  born 
in  the  summer,^  both  amusement  and  wealth,  of  whom  they  said  :  This 
one  is  the  great  voara  (a  species  of  fictis),  ornament  of  the  field  ;  this  the 
great  house,  adornment  of  the  town  ;  this  is  protection,  this  is  glorj^  this  is 
splendour,  this  is  boasting  ;  this  will  preserve  the  memor}^  of  the  dead,  for 
(he  is  as)  wide-spreading  grass  in  the  deserted  village,  and  succeeding  his 
fathers.  Yes,  they  thought  me  a  memorial  stone  set  up,  and  I  was 
(received)  both  with  shoutings  and  acclamation. 3 

Nevertheless  I  am  (but)  a  straggling  piece  of  peel  from  the  shoots  of 
the  plantain  tree  ;  and  now  I  am  left  spent  and  desolate  and  having 
nothing,  and  hated  by  father's  family,  and  cast  off  by  mother's  relations  ; 
and  considered  by  them  but  a  stone  on  which  things  are  dried  in  the  sun, 
and,  when  the  day  becomes  cloudy,  kicked  away.  Yes,  O  people,  O  good 
folks,  for  while  I  admonish  you  I  also  reproach  myself,  for  I  am  both  re- 
proached and  openly  ashamed.  Wherefore,  hark  ye,  take  good  care  of 
property  ;  for  when  property  is  gone,  gone  is  adornment  ;  and  the  lean  ox 
is  not  licked  by  its  fellows,  and  the  desolate  person  is  not  loved.  So  do  not 
waste  the  rice,  for  those  whose  planting-rice  is  gone,  and  who  have  to 
enter  into  the  fellow-wife's  house,  are  in  sad  case.  Do  not  trample  on 
my  cloth,  for  I  cannot  arrange  the  cotton  to  weave  another,  and  it  is  ill 
having  rags  to  wear  in  the  winter. 

It  will  be  observed  how  large  a  number  of  figures  there  is  in 
these  few  sentences  ;  some  of  the  allusions  are  explained  in 
foot-notes,  but  other  points  are  somewhat  obscure  to  those  un- 
acquainted with  the  habits  and  customs  of  the  Malagasy. 

Many  of  the  shorter  of  these  "  flowers  of  oratory  "  have  the 

^  The  word  thus  translated  means,  literally,  a  post  set  up  as  a  protection  to 
taboo  a  house  or  piece  of  ground. 

2  That  is,  in  the  rainy  season,  when  there  is  plenty  of  fresh  pasture. 

3  Memorial  stones  are  largely  used  in  the  central  provinces,  and  consist  of 
massive  monoliths  erected  with  immense  labour  and  expense. 


ORATORY,  SYMBOLIC  ACTIONS,  AND  CONUNDRUMS.  I95 

sententious  forms  of  the  proverbs  ;  and  others  take  the  shape  of 
a  conversation  between  imaginary  persons,  whose  names  often 
afford  a  key  to  the  sentiments  they  express.  The  language 
readily  lends  itself  to  such  coinage  of  names  ;  some  one  of  half 
a  dozen  different  prefixes  being  joined  to  words  or  short  sen- 
tences immediately  turns  them  into  proper  names,  each  appro- 
priate for  the  speakers,  whether  male  or  female,  old  or  young,  &c. 

Very  frequent  allusions  are  made  to  fidelity  to  friendship, 
which  is  a  strongly  marked  feature  of  the  Malagasy  character, 
as  shown  by  the  practice  of  brotherhood-by-blood  covenants. 
Here  is  an  example,  entitled, 

Mutual  Love. 

Let  us  two,  O  friend,  never  separate  upon  the  high  mountain,  nor  part 
upon  the  lofty  rock,  nor  leave  each  other  on  the  wide-spreading  plain. 
For,  alas  !  that  this  narrow  valley  should  part  such  loving  ones  as  we  are  ; 
for  thou  wilt  advance  and  go  home,  and  I  shall  return  to  remain,  for  if 
thou,  the  traveller,  shouldst  not  be  sad,  much  less  should  I,  the  one  left.  I 
am  a  child  left  by  its  companions,  and  playing  with  dust  ^  all  alone  ;  but 
still  should  I  not  be  utterly  weak  and  given  up  to  folly,  if  I  blamed  my 
friend  for  going  home  ? 

Some  of  the  pieces  remind  us  of  the  English  nursery  rhymes 
of  the  type  of  the  "  old  woman  who  could  not  get  home  to  get 
her  husband's  supper  ready  ;  "  as  is  the  following  : — 

TJic  Bird  icJio  could  find  110  Place  to  lay  her  Eggs. 

I  (sought  to)  lay,  says  a  bird,  upon  High-tree.-  The  high  tree  was 
blown  by  the  wind  ;  the  wind  was  stopped  by  the  hill ;  the  hill  was 
burrowed  by  the  rat  ;  the  rat  was  food  for  the  dog  ;  the  dog  was  con- 
trolled by  the  man  ;  the  man  was  conquered  by  the  spear  ;  the  spear  was 
conquered  by  the  rock  ;  the  rock  was  overflowed  by  the  water  ;  the  water 
was  crossed  by  little  "  red-eye  "  (a  small  bird). 

Several  of  the  pieces  in  this  section  of  the  book  refer  to 

^  The  common  amusement  of  native  children,  equivalent  to  the  "mud  pies" 
of  English  children. 

Here  personified  by  the  addition  of  the  personal  prefix  Ra-,  and  the  word  for 
tree  meaning  strictly  "  the  lofty  one." 


196 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


divorce,  and  to  the  attempts  often  made  to  bring  back  to  the 
husband  a  wife  who  had  been  put  away.  This  faciHty  is  one  of 
the  least  pleasing  features  of  Malagasy  society  ;  the  power  of 
divorce  being  usually  in  the  husband's  hands,  and  being  often 
exercised  for  most  trivial  reasons,  and  effected  in  an  absurdly 
easy  fashion.  It  will  be  seen,  however,  in  the  following  piece, 
that  the  woman  was  sometimes  quite  equal  to  her  husband  in 
power  of  repartee,  and  could  speak  with  stinging  sarcasm  of  his 
fickle  conduct  and  heartlessness  : — 

Sending  home  a  divorced  Wife. 
Where  away,  O  pair  of  bluebirds  ?  are  you  going  east,  or  going  west  ? 
If  to  the  west,  I  will  bind  you  hand  and  foot  to  tell  to  Rabarimaso  that  for 
a  whole  year  and  throughout  seven  months  thy  friend  has  not  bathed  in 
warm  water,  but  tears  longing  for  thee  have  been  his  bath.  Therefore 
say  :  May  you  live,  says  Ratsarahbbitsiinbahofaiy^  [that  is,  the  husband],  for 
thou  art  not  forgotten  by  him,  though  the  distance  be  great  and  though 
the  streams  be  in  flood.  And  when  Rafamelana ndcferana  [Mrs.  Long- 
enduring],  heard  that,  she  said  :  Upon  my  word,  I  am  astonished  at  thee, 
Andriamatoa  [a  term  of  respect  to  an  elderly  man  or  eldest  son]  :  when 
you  married  me,  you  thought  the  road  was  not  big  enough  for  me,  but  when 
you  divorced  me,  you  considered  me  a  mere  nothing  ;  when  you  asked  for 
me,  you  spread  out  like  the  broad  roof  of  the  house,  but  when  you  put  me 
away,  you  folded  up  like  its  gable.    So  enough  of  that,  Andriamatoa,  &c. 

And  so  she  proceeds  to  pile  up  figure  upon  figure  to  illustrate 
his  ill-treatment  of  her  ;  telling  him  : 

Perhaps  you  think  me  a  poor  little  locust  left  by  its  companions^ 
which  can  be  caught  by  any  one  having  a  hand.  ...  A  protection  (she 
tells  him)  can  be  found  from  the  rain  by  sewing  together  the  mat 
umbrella,  but  it  is  love  that  is  spent,  and  love  that  is  scattered,  and  love 
that  has  removed,  and  the  cut  ends  of  the  threads  are  not  to  be  joined 
together.  ^ 

To  all  this  the  husband  rejoins  : 

Unfortunate  that  I  am,  Rafara,  wife  beloved,  I  sent  unfit  persons  ;  to 


^  There  is  some  significance  in  this  long  name,  but  it  is  not  quite  clear  to  me 
from  its  literal  meaning.         "  Referring  to  the  threads  used  in  weaving  cloth,  j 


ORATORY,  SYMBOLIC  ACTIONS,  AND  CONUNDRUMS.     1 97 


get  you  home  were  they  sent,  nevertheless  to  keep  us  separate  is  what  they 
have  accompHshed  ;  so  come  home  then,  Rafara,  for  our  children  are  sad, 
the  house  is  desolate,  the  rice-fields  are  turned  into  a  marsh,  &c. 

Whether  these  efforts  were  successful  is  left  to  conjecture;  one 
may  hope  that  after  such  moving  appeals  the  injured  and  indig- 
nant wife  came  back  to  her  family  ;  especially  since  they  are 
followed  by  this  additional  address  by  the  husband  to  the  people 
at  large  to  help  him  out  of  his  difficulty  : — 

Second  speech  of  Ratsarahbby. 
Help  me,  good  folks,  for  the  fowl  I  had  all  but  caught  has  liown  off 
into  the  long  grass,  and  the  bird  I  had  almost  obtained  for  rearing  has 
been  carried  off  by  the  flood,  and  the  bull  I  should  have  obtained  for 
fighting  has  escaped  to  the  top  of  the  high  mountain.  So  help  me,  good 
people,  and  say  thus  to  Rafara  :  I  will  be  humble  in  spirit  without 
obstinacy,  and  will  agree  to  what  you  have  done  ;  for  if  thou  art  as  the 
storm  destroying  the  rice,  let  me  be  the  tree  trunk  plucked  up.  And  if 
thou  art  as  hail  destroying  the  rice,  let  me  be  the  wide  field  on  which  it  is 
scattered.  And  if  thou  art  as  the  thunderbolt  falling  to  the  earth,  let  me  be 
the  rock  on  which  it  dances.  And  if  thou  art  as  the  whirlwind  blinding 
the  e3'es,  let  me  be  the  lake,  substitute  for  eyes.  Because  gone  is  m}^ 
obstinacy,  for  gentleness  only  remains,  for  there  is  no  support  of  life,  since 
Rafara  is  the  support  of  life  ;  so  send  me  home  Rafara,  lest  I  become  a  fool. 

In  Malagasy  philosophy,  as  in  that  of  all  nations,  there 
occurs  frequent  mention  of  life  and  its  shortness  ;  and  in  the 
absence  of  any  certainty  as  to  a  future  life,  a  sentiment  some- 
what parallel  to  the  old  heathen  saying,  "  Let  us  eat  and  drink, 
for  to-morrow  we  die."    For  example  : — 

Take  your  fill  of  Pleasure  while  you  live. 
O  ye  prosperous  people,  O  ye  well  to  do  folks,  take  your  fill  of  pleasure 
while  you  live  ;  for  when  dead  and  come  to  the  "  stone  w^th  the  little 
mouth"  [the  native  tombs,  among  the  Hova,  are  made  of  large  undressed 
slabs  of  blue  granite,  in  one  of  which  a  small  entrance  is  cut],  it  is  not  to 
return  the  same  day,  but  to  stop  there  to  sleep  ; '  it  is  not  to  visit  only,  but 


^  Here  is  a  play  upon  native  words  Qniddi-iuaiidry)  which  are  used  alike  for 
sleeping  away  from  home  for  a  night,  and  also  for  dying. 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


to  remain.  The  covering  stone '  is  what  presses  down  over  one,  the  red 
earth  is  above  the  breast,  a  temporary  roof  and  tent  walls  surround  one  ; " 
no  turning  round,  no  rising  up. 

Another  piece  speaks  of 

Tilings  Jiere  on  Eaiili  not  enduring; 

and  after  referring  to  the  different  leaves,  fruit,  and  flowers  of 
various  trees,  proceeds  to  moralise  thus  : 

Thou  dost  not  perhaps  remember  the  sayings  of  the  ancestors  :  Con- 
sider, O  young  folks,  your  stay  here  on  the  earth,  for  the  trees  grow  only, 
but  are  not  joined  together,  for  if  they  were  they  would  reach  the  skies. 
But  it  is  not  thus,  for  they  have  their  time  of  springing  and  of  growing, 
and  of  being  cut  down.  And  just  so  with  men  :  to  them  come  prosperous 
days,  and  days  of  misfortune  ;  they  have  their  days  of  youth,  and  of  old 
age,  and  of  death  ;  but  those  who  die  happy  and  in  heaven  follow  Impbina^ 
and  Radama,3  they  are  the  fortunate  ones. 

A  characteristic  feature  in  native  ideas  is  shown  by  another 
piece,  which  enforces  the  doctrine  that  "It  is  better  to  die  than 
to  suffer  affliction." 

Many  of  the  compositions  in  this  section  of  the  book  are  in 
praise  of  wisdom  and  denunciation,  of  folly  ;  in  fact,  perhaps  no 
people  are  more  ready  to  give  and  receive  good  advice  than  are 
the  Malagasy.  It  is  universally  recognised  as  the  privilege  of  all 
to  give  admonition  to  others,  even  to  those  highest  in  rank,  if  it 
is  administered  in  the  form  of  advice  or  miatra. 

There  are  a  great  many  references  to  animals  in  these 
admonitions  ;  almost  every  bird  known  to  the  Malagasy  is  used 
as  a  simile,  and  its  habits  are  described  with  great  accuracy ;  so 
that  a  complete  collection  of  all  the  references  to  the  animal  life 
of  Madagascar  found  in  the  proverbs  and  fables  would  throw  no 
little  light  upon  the  fauna  of  the  island. 

^  The  four  stones  forming  the  sides  of  the  Hova  tombs  are  covered  in  by  one 
huge  slab,  called  the  rangoJahy. 

^  Referring  to  the  native  customs  at  a  funeral,  and  in  making  a  new  tomb. 

3  Hova  sovereigns  :  the  first  of  whom,  also  called  Andrianampoinimerina,  died 
in  1810,  the  second  in  1828. 


ORATORY,  SYMBOLIC  ACTIONS,  AND  CONUNDRUMS.     1 99 

Here  is  a  curious  piece  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue,  exhorting 
those  in  sorrow  not  to  hide  it  from  their  friends  : — 

TJie  Bereaved  one  questioned  and  attempting  to  hide  (Sorrow), 
Who  is  that  person  before  thee  ? 

I  know  not,  for  I  did  not  overtake  him. 
Who  is  yonder  person  behind  thee  ? 

I  know  not,  for  he  did  not  overtake  me. 
Why  then  are  you  so  erect  ? 

I  am  not  erect,  but  chanced  to  rise. 
Why  then  do  you  sob  so  ? 

I  am  not  sobbing,  but  merely  yawning. 
Why  are  you  as  if  beside  yourself  ? 

I  am  not  beside  myself,  but  am  thinking. 
Why  are  you  as  if  weeping  ? 

I  am  not  weeping,  but  have  got  dust  in  my  eye. 
Why  are  you  sighing  ? 

I  am  not  sighing,  but  have  a  cold. 
Why  are  you  woebegone  ? 

I  do  not  wish  to  appear  woebegone,  but  my  child  is  dead  ! 
Then  she  bursts  into  a  flood  of  tears  and  makes  all  the  people  sorry.^ 
Consider  well  !  do  not  hide  your  calamity. 

A  fatalistic  sentiment  appears  in  the  following,  entitled  : — 

Dying  is  not  to  be  avoided. 
The  guinea-fowl  when  flying  departs  not  from  the  wood,  nor,  when 
hiding,  from  the  earth,  and  the  Fanbro  ~  shrub  dies  on  the  ground.  All  the 
hairs  of  the  head  cannot  bind  death,  and  tears  cannot  hold  him  ;  therefore 
give  up  the  dead,  for  the  earth  is  the  forsaking  place  of  the  beloved  ones, 
the  dwelling  of  the  living,  the  home  when  dead. 

Here  is  a  bit  of  "  tall  talk,"  in  which  the  powers  of  nature  are 
invoked  to  help  against  an  enemy.  It  should  be  noted  that  all 
the  natural  objects  mentioned  are  personified  by  adding  to  them 
the  personal  prefix  Ra-^  which  can  hardly  be  paralleled  in  Eng- 
lish by  our  prefixes  Mr.  or  Mrs.,  &c.,  without  a  somewhat  comic 
effect,  which  is  quite  absent  in  the  Malagasy. 

^  When  a  death  occurs  in  any  house,  the  relatives  and  friends  assemble  in  large 
numbers  to  condole  with  the  family,  to  mitsapa  alahclo,  i.e.,  "  to  touch  sorrow." 
^  Gor.iphocarpus  fruticosns,  R.  Br. 


200  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

TJie  Far-reaching  Power  of  the  Imagination. 
The  sun  is  indeed  my  father,  the  moon  is  my  mother,  the  stars  are  but 
my  subjects  ;  Betsimitatatra  [the  great  rice-plain  west  of  Antananarivo]  is 
my  rice-plot,  the  meteors  are  my  guns,  and  the  thunderbolts  are  my 
cannon,  with  which  I  will  fire  at  those  who  hate  me. 

Here  is  another  example  of  the  same  habit  of  boasting  of 
one's  own  power,  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  two  men  : — 

Each  Boasting. 

Says  Rafaralahy  [i.e.,  last  male,  or  youngest  son]  :  "  Art  thou  Andria- 
naivo,  who  art  child  of  Namehana  :  rising  up,  eating  the  aviavy '  (fruit),  and 
when  stooping,  eating  ambntana  ^  (fruit)  ;  at  evening  playing  with  citrons, 
and  in  the  morning  bowling  lemons  ?  "    "  Just  so." 

Then  says  Andrianaivo  [middle  male]  :  "  Art  thou  Rafaralahy,  who  art 
child  of  larivo  :  when  poor,  having  money  sought  for  by  creditors  ;  riding 
on  horseback  yet  not  calumniated,  and  carried  in  a  palanquin,  yet  not 
abused  ? "    "  Just  so." 

A  careful  study  of  these  Malagasy  sayings,  together  with  the 
native  proverbs,  throws  considerable  light  upon  the  notions  of 
the  people  as  regards  morals.  Many  of  them  contain  much  good 
counsel  as  to  the  avoidance  of  various  vices  and  follies,  together 
with  rebukes  of  the  loose  native  habits  with  regard  to  marriage  ; 
for  example,  there  is  one  against  forsaking  one's  wife  to  marry 
a  richer  one  !  Then  we  have  warnings  against  bad  company, 
gluttony,  dishonesty,  and  prodigality,  and  very  many  against 
lying  and  liars.  The  good  and  the  evil  man  are  compared, 
patience  under  misfortune  is  commended,  and  we  are  cautioned 
against  trusting  in  appearances  in  the  following  allusion  to  the 
habits  of  the  crocodile,  the  most  feared  of  all  the  animals 
inhabiting  Madagascar  : — 

The  Slow-going  one  is  to  be  Feared. 
A  red  male  crocodile  going  down  the  Ikopa  with  the  stream,  its  sly 
advance  unheard,  its  movements  unobserved,  lying  still  in  the  pools  with- 


^  These  are  both  fine  trees,  very  common  in  the  central  parts  of  Madagascar  ; 
they  are  species  of  Ficus,  both  bearing  edible,  though  not  very  palatable,  fruit. 


ORATORY,  SYMBOLIC  ACTIONS,  AND  CONUNDRUMS.  201 


cut  diving,  and  lying  in  the  water  without  paddhng.  So  then,  say  I,  good 
folks,  perhaps  the  old  fellow  [lit.,  "  your  senior  "]  is  dead  and  therefore 
does  not  show  up,  or  is  somehow  prevented  and  so  does  not  return. 

But  the  people  say  :  Thou  art  indeed  childish  and  dost  not  perhaps 
consider  that  the  crocodile,  when  he  lies  in  the  deep  pools  and  does  not 
dive,  there  is  the  warm  place  where  he  sleeps  ;  and  when  he  lies  still  in 
the  water,  not  moving  a  foot,  that  there  is  the  place  where  he  obtains  his 
food.  So  let  that  teach  you  that  the  old  fellow  is  not  dead  by  any  means, 
but  has  still  an  eye  to  business. 

This  reference  to  the  crocodile  is  but  one  out  of  scores  of  pas- 
sages noticing  the  habits  of  animals  in  these  pieces,  and  which 
reveal,  as  already  remarked,  most  accurate  knowledge  of  their 
habits.  In  one  of  them  the  eels  in  the  Lake  Itasy  are  repre- 
sented as  in  council,  expressing  their  disappointment  that  a  stone 
breakwater,  made  to  prevent  a  too  great  rush  of  water  out  of  the 
lake,  has  not  proved  a  place  for  their  greater  enjoyment,  but 
where  they  may  more  easily  be  caught.  In  another  piece  the 
different  cries  and  habits  of  various  birds  are  compared,  and  the 
unfitness  of  all  for  carrying  a  message,  one,  the  Vbrondreo  {Lep- 
tosoina  discolor,  a  peculiar  species  of  roller),  which  has  a  loud 
distinct  cry  ;  while  as  to  others,  Fitatra  (a  species  of  warbler,  the 
Pranticola  sybilld)  would  be  ahvays  looking  for  food  ;  the  Soy  (a 
species  of  Nectarinid)  would  be  too  melancholy  ;  and  the  Fody 
(the  cardinal-bird,  Foudia  madagascariensis),  which  goes  in  flocks, 
would  always  be  flying  off  with  its  companions. 

This  observation  of  bird  life  is  also  illustrated  in  a  short  piece 
which  enforces  the  familiar  English  household  maxim  that 

Everything  has  Us  Place. 

The  whitebird  (a  species  of  egret  [Ardea  bubiilcus'],  which  feeds  on  the 
flies  and  parasites  of  cattle)  does  not  leave  the  oxen,  the  sandpiper  does  not 
forsake  the  ford,  the  hawk  does  not  depart  from  the  tree,  the  valley  is  the 
dwelling  of  the  mosquito,  the  mountain  is  the  home  of  the  mist,  the  water 
holes  are  the  lair  of  the  crocodile.  And  the  sovereign  is  the  depositary 
(lit.,  "resting-place")  of  the  law,  and  the  people  the  depositary  of  good 
sense. 


202  MADAGASCx\R  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Equally  numerous  are  the  allusions  to  the  various  trees  and 
plants  and  their  qualities,  and  the  way  in  which  they  illustrate 
human  weaknesses  and  follies. 

Love  of  children  is  a  marked  feature  in  these  native  sayings. 
They  are  called  "  the  fat  (that  is,  the  best)  of  one's  life  "  {inenaky 
ny  aiiid),  and  are  said  to  be  "  loved  like  one's  self,"  &c.  Equally 
distinct  is  the  love  of  home  and  of  one's  native  place  :  "  Yonder 
road,"  says  one  piece, "  is  dreary  and  difficult,  twisting  about  here 
and  there,  but  for  all  that  it  is  the  way  leading  to  the  door  of  the 
house  of  father  and  mother." 

Still  more  fully  and  pathetically  is  this  warm  family  affection 
expressed  in  the  following  lament  of  a  captive  taken  in  war,  with 
which  Vv'e  may  conclude  this  division  of  the  subject : — 

Oh  that  I  could  sec  Father  and  Mother ! 

Where  away  yonder,  O  bird,  art  thou  speeding  away  by  night  ?  Hast 
thou  lost  in  the  game,  or  art  thou  fined,  that  thou  thus  hastest  away  ? 

Neither  in  gaming  have  I  lost,  nor  a  fine  do  I  dread  ;  but  the  road  to 
be  travelled  I  sweep  over,  and  in  the  place  of  enjoyment  do  I  rest. 

Ah,  just  so,  O  bird  ;  would  that  I  also  were  a  bird  and  could  fly,  that  I 
might  go  yonder  to  the  top  of  the  high  tree  to  look  over  and  see  father  and 
mother,  lest  they  should  be  dead,  lest  they  should  be  ill ;  long  have  we 
been  separated  ;  for  we  are  held  in  bondage  by  the  people,  and  they  are 
persecuted  with  gun  and  spear.  We  are  slaves  here  in  Imerina  (the 
central  province  and  home  of  the  dominant  Hova  tribe)  ;  manure  is  our 
friend,  the  spade  is  our  brother  by  blood,  and  the  basket  is  our  companion," 
Our  necks  wait  for  the  wooden  collar,  our  backs  await  the  irons,  and  our 
feet  the  fetters.  And  father  and  mother  sigh  out  their  lives  at  Vohibe  ;  so 
salutation  (lit.,  may  they  live  ")  until  we  meet  again,  for  long  has  been  our 
separation. 

Most  of  the  principal  towns  and  villages  in  Imerina  are  noted 
for  some  circumstance  or  other,  either  in  their  natural  position, 
or  their  productions,  or  the  disposition  of  the  people,  as  clever, 
covetous,  or  brave,  &c.  This  is  sometimes  expressed  in  stinging 
proverbs,  which  are  quoted  by  their  neighbours  with  great  gusto, 

^  Alluding  to  the  constant  work  in  the  rice-fields  done  by  the  slaves,  in  digging, 
carrying  manure  in  baskets,  &c. 


ORATORV,  SYMBOLIC  ACTIONS,  AND  CONUNDRUMS.  203 


and  are  heard  with  equal  chagrin  by  the  unfortunate  objects  of 
these  satirical  bon-mots.  Thus  the  people  of  Ambohipeno  are 
held  up  to  scorn  in  the  saying,  "  The  arums  of  Ambohipeno  : 
they  had  rather  let  them  rot  than  give  one  to  a  neighbour." 

The  sixth  section  of  Specimens  of  Malagasy  Folk-io7'e  consists 
of  a  short  series  of  seven  Speeches,  under  the  heading  of  Hain- 
govi-pitencnaii  ny  Ntaolo  rcilia  7iifana7iatra  izy,  that  is,  "  Orna- 
ments of  Speech  among  the  Ancients,  when  they  mutually 
admonished.''  Although  in  Mr.  Dahle's  selection  these  follow 
the  native  songs,  they  would  seem  to  be  more  properly  placed 
next  to  the  first  division  of  the  book,  Hainteny  lavalava,  or 
"  Oratorical  Flourishes,"  as  they  partake  somewhat  of  the 
character  of  these ;  and  we  shall  therefore  consider  them  in  this 
place.  There  is  some  little  difference  in  the  style  of  these  pieces, 
and  in  that  of  the  Hainteny  lavalava  ;  and  as  they  afford  good 
illustrations  of  some  features  in  native  oratory  and  its  profusion 
of  figures,  two  or  three  of  them  may  be  translated  in  full, 
although  some  of  the  allusions  are  very  obscure. 

A  Plea  for  Friendship.'- 

1.  As  regards  ourselves  and  not  other  people  ;  for  we  are  people  born 
of  one  mother  and  people  of  one  origin  ;  one  root,  one  stock,  brethren 
following  the  footprints  of  the  cattle — not  broken,  even  if  torn  ;  a  hundred 
measures  of  rice,  mixed  in  the  storehouse,  houses  built  north  and  south  (of 
each  other),^  right  and  left  hand,  eyes  and  nose,  rice  in  two  measures,  yet 
born  of  one  person  only. 

2.  Therefore  let  us  love  one  another,  for  those  far  off  cannot  be  called  ; 
for  the  distant  fire,  as  they  say,  one  cannot  warm  at  ;  and  a  hundred 
measures  of  rice  cannot  be  carried  (by  one). 

3.  There  is  none  overtaken  by  another  [that  is  helped  by  strangers]  ; 
for  if  we  call  for  other  people's  relatives,  they  say,  it  is  night,  but  if  we  call 
our  own  relatives,  then  it  is  broad  day,3  for  look,  even  the  name  of  Such- 


^  On  the  ground  of  relationship  ;  lit.,  "a  plaiting  of  friendship." 

2  The  old  Hova  houses  were  always  built  with  their  length  running  north  and 
south,  the  front  of  the  house  facing  the  west,  the  lee-side. 

3  Referring  to  the  strong  and  universally  admitted  claims  for  help  in  various 
circumstances  that  relationship  involves. 


204 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


an-one  is  become  "  Not-overtaken-by-another "  (or  "  Not-indebted-to- 
strangers  "). 

4.  Therefore  as  for  thee,  O  Senior  hke  to  a  father,  thou  art  an  ambbra 
tree  for  holding  fast,  and  the  thick  forest  for  hiding,  and  the  hoof  for  feast- 
ing, and  the  sun  and  moon,  and  the  sky  to  cover  over,  and  the  earth  for 
treading  upon. 

5.  Thou  art  the  breast  joining  on  to  the  wings,  and  pahn  of  the  hand 
joining  to  the  forefinger,  and  knee  joining  the  muscles. 

6.  Thou  art  the  sole  vbmnaintilany  (seed)  remaining,  and  the  tree,  sapling 
of  the  forest,  and  the  bird  substitute  for  meat,  and  thou  art  Chief  of  the 
place,  and  Such-an-one  still  living  (amongst  us). 

Thanksgiving  Speech. 

Pleasing,  friends  ;  swallowed  {i.e.,  acceptable),  friends  ;  sweet,  friends  ; 
great  and  cannot  be  swallowed  are  ye.  Sweet  indeed  is  honey,  but  there 
are  dregs  ;  savoury  (lit.,  sweet)  indeed  is  salt,  but  it  is  like  a  stone  ;  sweet 
indeed  the  sugar-cane,  but  it  is  like  wood  ;  but  the  good  done  by  you  is 
incomparable.  Nevertheless,  friends,  be  of  good  cheer,  for  the  good  you 
have  done  will  not  be  pleasing  (only)  on  the  day  of  doing  it,  like  the  feet  of 
the  cattle  treading  the  rice  ground,'  but  will  be  pleasing  taken  home  to 
sleep  on,  for  it  shall  be  rewarded  when  awaking ;  for  that  is  water  bathed 
in  to  remove  grease,  and  fat  anointing  to  cause  to  shine,  and  cloth  to  wear 
to  keep  off  shame.  For  money  is  soon  spent,  and  other  things  comxe  to  an 
end,  but  friendship,  that  is  enduring. 

Another  speech  is  an  admonition  to  companions  who  shirk 
their  share  of  government  (unpaid)  service  : — 

Short  is  our  word,  Sirs,  a  speech  of  the  old,  and  if  long,  yet  height 
without  bulk,  and  if  too  short,  then  rolled  about  ;  so  let  it  be  like  the 
trench  for  sweet  potatoes  made  by  Ikarijovola,  and  the  germs  (fig.  topic) 
extracted. 

With  regard  to  yourself,  Such-an-one  ;  the  people  (lit.,  "  the  under  the 
day  ")  go  upon  the  Queen's  service,  but  thou  hidest  away  in  secret,  and 
dost  not  go  to  do  thy  share,  but  only  just  now  puttest  in  an  appearance. 
So  that  here  now  thou  actest  like  the  little  butterfly  by  the  water  :  able  to 
close  up  its  wings,  able  to  expand  them  ;  thou  dost  like  the  water-fowl  : 
black  when  diving,  black  when  emerging  ;  for  if  thou  dost  like  the  little 


'  Cattle  are  employed  to  trample  over  the  softened  mud  of  the  rice  fields 
before  planting. 


ORATORY,  SYMBOLIC  ACTIONS,  AND  CONUNDRUMS.  205 


crab  in  the  hole  :  grasped  by  the  hand  and  yet  not  got,  sprinkled  with 
water,  and  not  coming  out — then  we  detest  that,  Sir  !  And  now  if  it 
appears  that  what  is  under  the  eye  is  not  seen,  or  is  under  the  tongue  and 
is  not  chewed,  or  near  the  nose  and  not  smelt,  or  looked  at  and  not  known 
— then  we  utterly  detest  that,  Sir  !  So,  although  your  feet  even  may  go, 
and  although  your  knees  even  ma}'  skulk  along,  and  although  your  chin 
may  touch  the  ground,  we  will  not  let  you  off  unless  you  perform  the 
service  for  the  honour  of  the  sovereign. 

Here  is  another  piece,  the  subject  of  which  is 

Do  not  use  Evil  Speech. 

1.  It  is  not  well  that  men  should  make  a  hammer  with  two  heads  r 
both  speaking  good  and  speaking  evil.  For  it  is  an  evil  thing,  friends,  to 
act  like  the  tongue  of  the  ox,  licking  carefully  the  hump  and  licking  also 
the  feet  ;  able  to  enter  into  the  nostrils,  able  to  enter  also  the  mouth. 

2.  Take  heed  to  the  mouth,  friends,  for  the  mouth  is  a  compartment 
(or  room),  the  mouth  is  just  like  a  piece  of  cloth — tearing  this  way,  and 
tearing  that  way  ;  the  mouth  is  like  Alakaosy  (the  unlucky  month),  and  if 
one  does  not  butt  another,  one  butts  one's  self.  For  the  good  (speaking) 
mouth  is,  they  say,  as  a  meal  ;  but  the  evil  mouth  is,  they  say,  a  thing 
cleaving  to  one. 

The  evil  mouth  is  just  like  the  loin-cloth,  binding  its  only 
owner.  For  there  is  no  one  guilty  in  body,  they  say,  but  they 
who  are  guilty  in  mouth  are  guilty.  For  the  unguarded  mouth, 
they  say,  is  cause  of  calamity,  and  those  who  are  free  of  speech, 
they  sa}',  reveal  secrets  ;  so  that  what  is  done  by  the  mouth, 
they  say,  endangers  the  neck. 

3.  Take  heed,  friends,  to  the  mouth,  and  do  what  is  right,  for  that  onl5" 
brings  lasting  good.  For  if  one  does  good  when  young,  they  say,  they 
have  something  to  take  to  old  age,  yea,  even  to  take  with  them  in  death. 
For  that  has  given  rise  to  the  popular  saying,  "  Do  good  that  you  be  not 
forgotten,  even  when  you  have  mouldered  away."  For  the  good  done, 
they  say,  is  a  memorial  (lit.,  "a  set-up  stone"),  and  the  good  done  is  good 
packed  up  for  a  journey. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  this  speech  what  a  frequent  repetition 
there  is  of  the  w^ord  hbno,  "  they  say,"  or    it  is  said  "  ;  appar- 


206  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

ently  guarding  a  speaker  from  personal  responsibility  for  much 
of  his  counsel,  and  sheltering  him  under  the  authority  of  others. 
This  is  quite  characteristic  of  the  native  mind,  which  shrinks 
from  very  direct  assertion  or  accusation,  and  always  prefers  an 
indirect  mode  of  statement. 

The  symbols  and  figures  which  it  will  have  been  seen  in  the 
preceding  pages  to  be  a  marked  characteristic  of  Malagasy 
speech  are  not,  however,  confined  to  words,  but  are  sometimes 
extended  to  actions.  Every  reader  of  the  Old  Testament 
scriptures  is  aware  of  the  frequent  use  made  of  such  methods 
of  teaching  by  the  Hebrew  prophets,  as  seen  in  the  Book  of 
Ezekiel  (iii.  1-3;  iv.  ;  vii.  23  ;  xxiv.  1-4;  xxxvii.  15-17),  and  in 
I  Kings  xxii.  1 1. 

In  Malagasy  history  there  are  some  interesting  examples 
of  a  similar  employment  of  symbolic  acts,  especially  before 
the  general  use  of  writing  had  made  written  letters  common. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  Andrianimpoina,  King 
of  Imerina,  had  reduced  under  his  authority  a  great  part  of 
the  interior  of  the  island,  and,  confident  of  his  own  power,  sent 
a  messenger  to  the  principal  chief  of  the  southern  central 
province,  Betsileo,  telling  him  that  he  was  "  his  son  "  (a  common 
Malagasy  expression  implying  that  one  person  is  subordinate 
to  another),  and  requiring  him  to  come  and  acknowledge  his 
father.  The  Betsileo  chief,  however,  replied  that  he  was  no  son 
of  the  Hova  king,  but  that  they  were  brothers,  each  possessing 
his  own  territory.  The  Hova  returned  for  answer,  "  I  have  a 
large  cloth  (to  cover  me),  but  thou  hast  a  small  one  ;  so  that 
if  you  are  far  from  me  you  are  cold  ;  for  I  am  the  island  to 
which  all  the  little  ones  resort,  therefore  come  to  me,  thy  father, 
for  thou  art  my  son."  When  the  Betsileo  chief  received  this 
message  he  measured  a  piece  of  wood  between  his  extended 
arms  (the  refy  or  standard  measure  of  the  Malagasy,  between 
the  tips  of  the  fingers  when  the  arms  are  stretched  apart  to  the 
utmost),  and  sent  it  to  the  king,  with  the  words,  "  This  wood  is 
my  measure  ;  bid  Andrianimpoina  equal  it  ;  if  he  can  span  it, 


ORATORY,  SYMBOLIC  ACTIONS,  AND  CONUNDRUMS.  20/ 

then  I  am  his  son,  and  not  his  brother."  Upon  Andrianimpoina 
trying  it  he  was  unable  to  reach  it,  for  the  Betsileo  chief  was 
long  in  the  arms.  But  the  Hova  king  would  not  give  up  his 
point,  and  replied,  "  My  measurement  of  the  wood  is  of  no 
consequence,  for  kingship  does  not  consist  in  length  of  arms  ; 
thou  art  little,  therefore  my  son  ;  I  am  great,  therefore  thy 
father."    {^Cf.  2  Kings  xvi.  7.) 

Still  the  southern  chief  was  unwilling  to  submit,  and  sent  a 
particular  kind  of  native  cloth  ornamented  with  beads,  with  a 
request  that  an  ox  should  be  cut  up  upon  it,  as  another  sign 
whether  he  was  to  acknowledge  the  Hova  king  as  his  superior 
or  not.  This  test  also  turned  out  to  his  own  advantage  ;  but  at 
length  Andrianimpoina  would  have  no  further  trifling.  He  sent 
back  the  cloth  with  a  piece  cut  off  one  end  of  it,  and  a  spear- 
hole  through  the  middle,  as  a  significant  warning  of  his  inten- 
tions unless  immediate  submission  was  made.  The  lesson  was 
not  lost  upon  the  weaker  chief ;  he  returned  a  humble  answer, 
begging  that  he  might  not  be  killed,  saying,  "  While  it  is  to-day, 
all  day  let  me  eat  of  the  tender  (food)  of  the  earth,  for  Andrian- 
impoina is  lord  of  the  kingdom." 

Something  of  a  similar  kind  of  symbolic  act  is  related  of 
Queen  Ranavalona  I.  When  she  came  to  the  throne  in  1828 
there  was  a  little  boy  not  many  months  old  at  that  time,  of  the 
true  seed  royal,  and  descended  from  the  line  of  the  ancient 
kings.  The  queen  then  announced  that  she  had  made  this 
boy  her  adopted  son,  and  that  he  should  be  her  successor  ;  even 
if  she  should  have  children  of  her  own,  his  right  to  the  throne 
should  remain  good.  Afterwards  she  had  a  son  of  her  own, 
whom  she  named  Rakoton-dRadama  ;  many  thought  that  her 
own  son  would  succeed  her,  but  the  declaration  in  favour  of  the 
other  was  never  rescinded,  and  hence  arose  much  animosity 
between  the  two  princes.  When  the  queen  became  old  and 
feeble,  the  subject  of  the  succession  came  up,  and  she  settled 
it  in  a  singular  way,  substantially  as  follows  : — She  held  a 
meeting  of  her  officers,  judges,  and  heads  of  the  people,  with 


208  MADADASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

great  solemnity,  within  the  palace,  when  she  announced  her 
intention  of  making  a  valuable  present  to  each  of  the  two 
princes.  Two  fine  vases  or  covered  vessels  were  placed  on  the 
table,  and  the  two  young  men  were  called  in  ;  the  elder  was 
first  directed  to  choose  which  he  would  have.  He  did  so,  and 
on  opening  the  vase  it  was  found  to  contain  some  beautiful 
gems  and  valuable  ornaments.  The  younger,  her  own  son, 
then  opened  his  vase,  and  found  it  contained  only  a  handful 
of  earth.  The  queen  then  addressed  the  assembly,  saying  that 
the  elder  prince  was  to  be  advanced  to  high  honour  and  riches 
in  the  land  ;  but,  as  the  land  could  not  be  divided,  the  younger 
prince,  who  had  received  from  God  the  handful  of  earth, 
should  be  her  successor.  (He  eventually  became  king  under 
the  name  of  Radama  H.,  but  only  reigned  about  eighteen 
months.) 

Section  H.  :  Riddles  and  Conundrums. — The  second 
division  of  Mr.  Dahle's  book  consists  of  about  three  hundred 
Malagasy  proverbs,  here  called  "  Shorter  clever  Speeches  re- 
sembling Proverbs"  ;  but,  as  this  branch  of  native  wisdom  and 
observation  really  requires  a  separate  paper  in  order  to  do  it 
justice,  we  shall  not  here  give  extracts  from  this  part  of  the 
book.  Besides  which,  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  illustrations 
from  larger  collections  than  this  supplementary  one  from  the 
work  we  are  chiefly  using  as  a  text-book. 

The  third  and  fourth  sections  of  the  book  comprise  a  small 
collection  of  Malagasy  riddles  and  conundrums,  Fampanonbnana 
and  Safidy,  the  latter  meaning  "  choosings,"  two  somewhat 
similar  things  being  offered  for  choice  in  enigmatical  language. 
Such  playing  upon  words  is  a  favourite  amusement  of  the 
people ;  and,  as  some  of  them  show  considerable  shrewdness  a 
few  examples  may  be  given,  all  of  them  beginning  with  the 
question,  Inona  dry  izdny  ?  ("  What  then  is  this  ?  "). 

I.  At  night  they  come  without  being  fetched,  and  by  day  they  are  lost 
without  being  stolen  ? 


ORATORY,  SYMBOLIC  ACTIONS,  AND  CONUNDRUMS.  20g 

The  stars ;  for,  according  to  the  common  belief,  they  go 
completely  away  from  their  places  by  day. 

2.  Cut  down,  and  yet  not  withering  ? 
Hair,  when  cut  off. 

3.  Six  legs  and  two  feet  (lit,  "  soles")  ? 

Money  scales,  which  have  always  three  strings  (legs)  for  each 
pan,  which  is  called  in  native  idiom  its  "  tongue,"  but  in  the 
riddle  is  compared  to  a  foot. 

4.  Lying  on  the  same  pillow,  but  not  on  the  same  bed  ? 

The  rafters  of  a  roof  which  lean  on  the  same  ridge-piece  (or 
pillow),  but  rest  (that  is,  the  opposite  sides)  on  different  wall- 
plates  (or  beds). 

5.  Coarse  rofia  cloth  outside  and  white  robe  inside  ? 

The  manioc  root,  which  has  a  brown  skin,  but  very  white 
floury  substance,  here  contrasted  with  the  ordinary  native  habit 
of  wearing  coarse  and  often  dirty  clothing  below,  and  a  fine 
w^hite  cloth  or  lamba  over  all. 

6.  If  boiled,  never  cooked  ;  but  if  roasted,  ready  directly  ? 
Hair. 

7.  Cannot  be  carried,  but  can  easily  be  removed  ? 

The  public  road ;  for,  until  quite  recently,  there  have  been  no 
rights  of  way  in  Madagascar,  and  any  one  can  divert  a  path  as 
he  may  please. 

8.  Fetch  the  dead  on  which  to  place  the  living  ? 

Ashes  and  fire,  alluding  to  the  common  native  practice  of 
fetching  a  live  coal  or  two  in  a  handful  of  ashes. 

15 


210  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

9.  Standing  erect  he  gazes  on  heaven  (lit.,  "  the  Creator  ")  ;  stooping 
down  he  gazes  on  the  oxen's  footprints  ? 

Rice^  which  while  growing  stands  erect,  but  when  ripe  bends 
downwards. 

10.  Its  mother  says,  Let  us  spread  out  our  hands,  but  its  children  say, 
Let  us  double  up  our  fists  ? 

The  full-grown  fern  and  the  young  fern  shoots^  alluding  to  the 
rounded  knobs  at  the  heads  of  the  latter,  compared  with  the 
outspread  fronds  of  the  plant  when  full  grown. 

11.  The  foot  above  the  leg  ? 

The  leaves  of  the  horirika,  an  edible  arum,  whose  broad  leaf  is 
compared  to  a  foot  and  its  stalk  to  a  leg. 

12.  Cut,  and  yet  no  wound  seen  ? 
A  shadow  and  water, 

13.  The  mother  says,  Let  us  stand  up,  but  the  children  say.  Let  us  lie 
across  ? 

A  ladder  and  its  rungs ;  the  latter  are  called  "  children  of  the 
ladder  "  {zana-tbhatra), 

14.  Has  a  mouth  to  eat  with,  but  has  no  stomach  to  retain  food  ? 

A  pair  of  scissors.  A  cutting  edge  is  called  in  native  idiom 
its  "  tongue  "  {lela). 

15.  God's  little  bag,  whose  stitching  is  invisible  ? 
An  egg. 

16.  Living  on  dainties,  yet  never  fat  ? 

A  lampstand,  which  is  continually  fed  with  fat. 


ORATORY,  SYMBOLIC  ACTIONS,  AND  CONUNDRUMS.  211 


17.  Earth  under  the  person,  the  person  under  dry  grass,  dry  grass 
under  water,  and  water  again  surrounded  by  earth  ? 

A  water-carrier  and  the  waterpot  he  {or  she)  carries,  together 
with  a  ring  of  dry  grass  used  as  a  pad  for  the  waterpot,  the 
water  carried,  and  the  earthen  siny  or  pot  enclosing  the  water. 

18.  When  the  Httle  one  comes  the  great  one  takes  off  its  hat  ? 

The  great  store  waterpot  in  a  house,  from  which  the  straw 
cover  or  hat  is  removed  when  water  is  drawn  with  a  horn  or  tin 
ladle. 

19.  Dead  before  it  begins  to  bluster  ? 

A  drum,  referring  to  the  bullock's  skin  of  which  it  is  made. 

20.  Many  shields,  many  spears,  yet  cannot  protect  wife  and  children  ? 

The  lemon  tree,  alluding  to  the  spines  on  the  branches  and 
the  round  fruits. 

In  the  appendix  to  the  book  three  specimens  of  conundrum 
games  are  given,  the  custom  being  for  the  proposer  to  mention 
first  a  number  of  things  from  a  dozen  to  thirty,  calling  upon  the 
rest  of  the  party  to  guess  what  they  are  when  he  has  done.  In 
the  first  of  these  a  number  of  insects,  birds,  and  household 
objects  are  mentioned  by  some  more  or  less  vague  description 
of  them,  such  as  :  Adornment  of  the  sovereign  ?  The  people. 
Horns  (i.e.,  protection)  of  the  people?  Guns.  Top-knot  of 
the  town  ?  A  big  house.  Two-thirds  of  his  sense  gone  before 
he  gets  arms  and  legs  ?  A  tadpole,  when  it  changes  to  a  frog ; 
&c. 

In  the  second  game  all  the  different  parts  of  an  ox  are 
described  in  an  enigmatical  way,  thus :  God's  pavement  ?  Its 
teeth.  Two  lakes  at  the  foot  of  a  tree  ?  Its  eyes.  Continually 
fighting  but  never  separating  ?  Its  lips.  Blanket  worn  day  and 
night  and  can't  be  torn  ?    Its  skin  ;  8ic. 

In  the  third  game  occur  the  following :  Fragrance  of  the 
forest  ?    Ginger.    Fat  of  the  trees  ?    Ho7iey.    The  lofty  place, 


i 


212  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

a  safe  refuge  from  the  flood?  Antananarivo.  The  lofty  place 
good  for  sheltering?  Ambbhimanga?-  Rising  up  and  not 
questioned  ?  The  roof-posts  of  a  house :  for  a  native,  when 
rising  up  from  the  mat,  would  invariably  be  asked,  Ho  aiza 
moa  hianao  ?  ("  Where  are  you  going  ?  "). 

^  Because  of  the  woods  which  clothe  the  slopes  of  the  hill. 


CHAPTER  XL 


MALAGAS>Y  SONGS,   POETRY,  CHILDREN'S  GAMES,  AND 
MYTHICAL  CREATURES. 

Songs  to  the  Sovereign — Dirges — Sihanaka  laments — Ballad  of  Benandro — 
Friendship  —  Children's  games  —  Rasarindra  —  Soamiditra  —  Sakoda — 
"Leper"  game — "Star-killing" — New  Year's  games — Counting  games — 
Marvellous  creatures — Soiigoniby — Fauaiiy,  or  Seven-headed  Serpent  — 
Tokaudia,  or  "  Single-foot  " — Kindly — Dona  or  Pily  (serpent) — Lalomcna 
(Hippopotamus  ?) — Angalapona — Siona. 

SECTION  1.  :  Songs. — Next  in  order  in  this  collection  of 
folk-lore  we  find  a  number  of  native  songs  or  Hlran'  ny 
Ntaolo  ("  Songs  of  the  Ancients  ").  The  Malagasy  people  are 
very  fond  of  singing  and  of  music,  and  have  a  very  correct  ear 
for  harmony.  They  like  singing  in  parts,  and  when  they  hear  a 
new  tune  will  often  improvise  a  tenor,  alto,  or  bass  accompani- 
ment. The  native  tunes  are  somewhat  plaintive,  and  are  often 
accompanied  with  the  regular  clapping  of  hands  and  the  twang- 
ing of  a  rude  guitar  or  other  instrument.  On  moonlight  nights 
the  children  and  young  people  will  stay  out  of  doors  until  the 
small  hours  of  the  morning,  singing  the  native  songs,  in  which 
they  take  immense  delight.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  following 
specimens  that  although  these  songs  are  not  rhymed  or  metrical, 
they  have  nevertheless  a  certain  rhythmical  "  swing "  or  flow, 
and  a  parallelism  of  structure,  and  are  arranged  in  somewhat 
regular  form  as  regards  couplets  and  stanzas. 

Several  of  these  songs  are  in  praise  of  the  sovereign,  and 
were  chiefly  composed  in  honour  of  the  persecuting  Queen 
Ranavalona  I.,  who  reigned  from  1828  to  1861.    In  heathen 


214  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


times,  that  is,  until  the  accession  of  Queen  Ranavalona  II., 
in  1868,  it  was  customary  to  salute  the  sovereign  as  the 
"  God  seen  by  the  eye,"  the  visible  divinity  {Andrlamdnitra 
hita  mdso).  Here  is  one  of  these  laudatory  effusions  addressed 
to  the  former  queens  : — 

1.  Salutation,  Rabodonandrianimpoina  !  ^ 
Suns  (there  are)  not  two  ; 

Suns  but  one  only  (namely), 
Rabodonandrianimpoina  ! 

2.  Going  to  Imanga,'  she's  no  stranger  ; 
Coming  to  larivo,^  sovereign  of  the  land. 

3.  A  shield  of  beaten  gold  ; 

Rising  up  (she  is)  light  of  the  heaven  ; 
Stooping  down,  lamp  of  the  earth. 

Another  song  is  in  more  regular  form,  consisting  of  six 
stanzas  of  five  lines  each  : — 

1.  Rabodonandrianimpoina. 
South  of  Ambatonafandrana,3 
North  of  Ambohimitsimbina, 
West  of  Imandroseza, 

East  of  Ambohijanahary. 

2.  May  you  live,  Rabodo, 

And  Ramb6asalama-Razaka,4 
And  Rakoto  (son  of)  Radama  ;  s 
And  the  whole  (royal)  family, 
Not  to  be  counted  up. 

Some  of  these  songs  are  wordy  and  full  of  repetitions, 
especially  in  the  choruses,  which  are  very  much  in  what  we 
should  call,  in  English,  the  "  tra-la-la  "  style ;  but  several  are 
composed  in  a  grave  and  serious  strain,  some  enforcing  the 

^  This  was  the  official  and  semi-sacred  name  of  the  queen. 
=  Shortened  forms  of  Ambohimanga  and  Antananarivo,  the  ancient  and 
present  capitals. 

s  This  and  the  three  following  words  are  the  names  of  the  northern,  southern, 
eastern,  and  western  portions  of  the  capital  city,  the  royal  palaces  being  in  the 
centre,  and  on  the  summit  of  the  long  rocky  ridge  on  and  around  which  the 
city  is  built. 

^  The  queen's  nephew,  and  heir  to  the  throne  until  the  birth  of  her  son  ;  see 
p.  207. 

s  Her  son,  afterwards  king  as  Radama  H.  (1861-1863)  ;  see  p.  208. 


SONGS,  POETRY,  AND  MYTHICAL  CREATURES.  21 5 

honour  due  to  parents,  others  expounding  the  nature  of  true 
friendship.  In  one  of  these  latter  the  hearers  are  cautioned  not 
to  make  "  mist  friendship,"  which  soon  dissolves  ;  nor  "  stone 
friendship,"  which  cannot  be  joined  again  if  broken  ;  but  to 
form  "  iron  friendships,"  which  can  be  welded  again  if  severed  ; 
or  "  silk  friendship,"  which  can  be  twisted  in  again ;  not  "  tobacco 
friendship,"  liked  but  not  swallowed  ;  nor  "  door  friendship," 
liked  indeed,  but  pushed  to  and  fro  ;  and  so  on. 

As  in  the  proverbs  and  oratorical  pieces,  so  also  in  some  of 
these  songs,  the  different  places  in  the  central  province  are 
referred  to,  in  some  cases  with  a  punning  on  their  names,  to  the 
effect  that  although  they  may  be  called  So-and-so,  those  only 
who  act  in  accordance  with  the  name  have  truly  such-and-such 
qualities.    Thus  : — 

A  place-name  is  Tsianolondroa  (lit.,  "  Not-for-two-people  "); 
Yet  it's  not  the  place  is  (really)  Tsianolondroa, 
But  'tis  the  wife  who  is  "not-for-two  people." 

A  place-name  is  Ambohipotsy  (White-village)  ; 
Yet  it's  not  the  place  is  (really)  Ambohipotsy, 
But  those  who  hate  uncleanness  avc  white. 

A  place-name  is  Ambohibeloma  (Village-of-farewell)  ; 
Yet  it's  not  the  place  is  (really)  Ambohibeloma, 
But  it's  those  who  go  home  w^ho  say,  Farewell, 

Among  these  Malagasy  songs  are  some  called  sasy^  which 
are  employed  as  dirges  for  the  dead.  An  example  given  by 
Mr.  Dahle  consists  of  five  different  strains,  the  first  of  which  is 
in  three  stanzas ;  of  these  the  second  may  be  given  as  a 
specimen  : — 

E,  malahelo  6 !  e  malahelo  6  !  Ah,  sorrowful  O  !  ah,  sorrowful  O  ! 

Tomany  alina  !  Weeping  by  night ! 

E,  malahelo  6  ny  vadiny  etoana  !       Ah,  sorrowful  O  !  is  here  his  wife  ! 

Tomany  alina  !  Weeping  by  night ! 

E,  malahelo  6  ny  zanany  etoana  !       Ah,  sorrowful  O  !  are  here  his  children  I 

Tomany  alina  !  Weeping  by  night ! 

E,  malahelo  6  ny  havany  etoana  !       Ah,  sorrow^f ul  O  !  are  here  his  relatives  1 

Tomany  alina  !  Weeping  by  night  ! 

E,  malahelo  6  ny  ankiziny  etoana  !     Ah,  sorrowful  O  !  are  here  his  slaves  ! 

Malahelo  izy  rehetra  !  Sorrowful  are  they  all  ! 


2l6  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

The  following  description  of  the  burial  customs  and  chants 
of  the  Sihanaka  tribe  is  translated  from  the  account  given  by 
an  intelligent  young  Hova  evangelist  who  lived  among  them  for 
three  years  (i  867-1 870): — 

"  Their  customs  when  watching  a  corpse  are  as  follows  :  A 
number  of  women,  both  young  and  old,  sit  in  the  house  con- 
taining the  corpse,  and  the  chief  mourners  weep,  but  the  rest 
sing  and  beat  drums.  There  is  no  cessation  in  the  funeral 
customs  and  singing  day  or  night  until  the  burial,  although  that 
sometimes  does  not  take  place  for  a  week,  in  the  case  of  wealthy 
people.  The  dirges  sung  on  these  occasions  are  distressing  and 
strange  to  hear,  and  show  plainly  their  ignorance  of  the  future 
state  and  of  what  is  beyond  the  grave ;  for  the  dead  are  termed 
*  lost '  {very),  lost  as  people  who  are  left  by  their  companions, 
and  do  not  see  the  way  to  go  home  again  ;  and  death  they  look 
upon  as  the  messenger  of  some  hard-hearted  power,  who  drives 
hard  bargains  which  cannot  be  altered,  and  puts  one  in  extreme 
peril  (lit,  '  in  the  grip  of  a  crocodile '),  where  no  entreaties 
prevail.  The  dead  they  call  '  the  gentle  (or  pleasant)  person  ; ' 
and  they  will  not  allow  his  wife  and  children  and  all  his  relatives 
to  think  of  anything  but  their  bereavement,  and  the  evil  they 
have  to  expect  from  the  want  of  the  protection  they  had  from 
the  dead ;  for  now  '  the  pillar  of  the  house  on  which  they  leaned 
is  broken,  and  the  house  which  sheltered  them  is  pulled  down 
and  the  town  they  lived  in  is  destroyed,  and  the  strong  one  they 
followed  is  overcome.'  And  after  that  they  declare  that  the 
living  are  in  trouble,  and  seem  to  agree  that  it  had  been  better 
not  to  have  been  born. 

"  While  they  are  yet  singing  in  the  manner  just  described, 
a  man  goes  round  the  house  and  sings  a  dirge  in  a  melancholy 
tone,  upon  hearing  which  those  in  the  house  stop  suddenly  and 
are  perfectly  still.  Then  the  one  outside  the  house  proceeds 
rapidly  with  his  chant,  as  follows  : — 

O  gone  away  !  O  gone  away,  oh  ! 

Is  the  gentle  one,  O  the  gentle  one,  oh  ! 


SONGS,  POETRY,  AND  MYTHICAL  CREATURES.  21/ 

Ah,  farewell,  ah,  farewell,  oh  ! 
Farewell,  oh  !  farewell  to  his  house  ! 
Farewell,  oh  !  farewell  to  his  friends ! 
Farewell,  oh  !  farewell  to  his  wife  ! 
Farewell,  oh  !  farewell  to  his  children  ! 

Then  those  within  doors  answer,  '  Hai^  ! '  as  if  to  say,  Amen. 

"  Then  they  inquire  and  reply  as  follows,  those  outside 
asking,  and  the  others  in  the  house  answering : — 

What  is  that  sound  of  rushing  feet  ? 

The  cattle. 
What  is  that  rattling  chinking  sound  ? 

The  money. 
What  is  making  such  a  noise  ? 

The  people — 

referring  to  the  property  of  the  deceased.  Then  the  one 
outside  chants  again  : — 

O  !  distressed  and  sad  are  the  many  ! 

O  !  the  plantation  is  overgrowm  with  weeds  ! 

O  !  scattered  are  the  calves  ! 

O  !  silent  are  the  fields  ! 

O  !  weeping  are  the  children  ! 

Then  those  in  the  house  answer  again,  '  Hai6  ! ' 
"  Then  the  one  outside  the  house  again  sings  : — 

O  gone  away,  gone  away,  is  the  gentle  one  ! 
Farewell,  oh  !  farewell,"  &c.,  &c. 

The  longest  piece  in  Mr.  Dahle's  collection  of  songs  is  a 
kind  of  ballad,  in  forty-four  stanzas  of  three  lines  each.  It 
relates  the  fortunes  of  an  only  son  called  Benandro,  who  would 
go  off  to  the  wars,  notwithstanding  the  entreaties  of  his  father 
and  mother.  Of  course  he  at  last  overcomes  their  opposition, 
and  goes  away  with  a  confidential  slave,  but  soon  comes  to 
grief,  for  he  is  taken  ill,  dies  on  the  road,  and  the  slave  has, 
according  to  native  custom,  to  bring  back  his  bones  to  his 
disconsolate  parents,  who  are  ready  to  die  with  sorrow  at 
their  loss.     Although  full  of  repetitions  it  has  a  swinging, 


2l8  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


almost  rhythmical,  flow,  very  like  some  of  the  old  English 
ballads,  as  will  be  seen  by  a  few  specimen  verses  : — 

1.  Benandro  a  darling  son, 
Benandro  a  darling  son, 
Benandro  a  dearly  loved  one. 

2.  Then  rose,  say  I,  Benandro  O  ! 
Besought  his  mother  O  ! 
Besought  his  father  O  ! 

3.  O  pray  do  let  me  go, 

0  pray  do  let  me  go  ; 

For  gone  are  all  the  young  men,  O  ! 

12.  Then  answered  back  his  father,  O  ! 
Then  spake  to  him  his  mother, 

"  Stay  here,  O  piece  of  my  life. 

13.  The  road  you  go  is  difficult, 
Diseases  dire  will  cut  you  off, 
Stay  here,  do  thou  stay  here. 

14.  The  insects  too  are  numerous, 
The  fever  too  is  dangerous, 
Stay  here,  O  piece  of  my  life.'' 

However,  he  goes  away  under  the  charge  of  Tsaramainty 
("  The  Good  Black "),  who  is  charged  to  nurse  him  if  ill,  to 
feed  him  when  hungry,  to  be,  in  fact,  in  the  place  of  his  father 
and  mother.  But  falling  ill  he  remembers  with  sorrow  his  self- 
willedness,  gives  directions  to  Tsaramainty  to  take  his  "eight 
bones,"  that  is,  the  principal  bones  of  the  four  limbs,  to  his 
parents.  Their  grief  at  hearing  of  his  death  is  pathetically 
described  : — 

Gone  indeed  is  Benandro  O  ! 
Gone,  and  will  return  no  more  ? 
Take  me  to  thee,  Benandro  O  ! 

1  grieve  for  thee,  Benandro  O  ! 
I  long  for  thee,  Benandro  O  ! 
Take  me  with  thee,  Benandro  O  ! 

Here  is  one  of  those  moral  exhortations  in  which  the  Hova 
Malagasy  delight : — 

Exhortation  to  Friendship. 
I.  Let  the  living  love  each  other ;  for  the  others  (the  dead)  cannot 
attain  it ;  for  the  others  are  gone  home. 


SONGS,  POETRY,  AND  MYTHICAL  CREATURES.  219 

2.  Let  the  living  love  each  other  ;  for  the  dead  are  not  companions  ; 
for  the  dead  belong  to  the  dead,  the  living  belong  to  the  living  ;  for  the 
dead  cannot  be  hoped  for,  but  the  living  can  be  hoped  for. 

3.  Let  the  living  love  each  other  ;  for  the  kind-hearted  attain  (life's) 
end  ;  people  love  what  touches  the  heart ;  and  remorse  does  not  come 
before  (the  deed),  but  after  ;  and  it  is  you  (O  men)  who  shall  be  full  of 
remorse,  who,  angry,  give  up  your  heart  (to  vengeance)  ;  but  for  us,  we 
suffer  no  remorse  ;  when  angry,  we  can  be  pacified,  for  vengeance  which 
gets  the  mastery  becomes  a  parent  of  much  guilt. 

4.  Let  the  living  love  each  other  ;  and  do  not  build  two  houses  too 
distant ;  for  the  distant  (neighbour)  cannot  be  called  in,  but  the  near  will 
be  preferred,  and  the  many  (together)  are  happy  ;  for  ants  consume  a 
small  store. 

5.  Let  the  living  love  each  other  ;  do  like  the  locusts  :  when  fat,  they 
fly  off  together. 

Section  II.:  Children's  Games. — The  next  division  of 
our  text-book  treats  of  Children's  Games,  "  LalaotC  ny  Ankizy'' 
and  as  these  are  not  without  interest  as  illustrations  of  national 
habits  and  ideas,  a  few  extracts  may  be  given.  There  is  a  short 
introduction,  evidently  from  a  native  source,  describing  the 
way  in  which  Malagasy  children  play  : — Two  or  three  joining 
together  go  to  fetch  their  companions,  the  parents  saying,  "  Go 
and  play,  for  here  are  your  friends  calling  you,  for  it  is  bright 
moonlight"  (lit.,  "moonlight  (is)  the  day").  And  so  they  all  go 
on  to  other  houses  until  a  number  are  assembled,  and  they 
choose  some  spacious  piece  of  ground.  All  having  come 
together,  they  find  out  who  of  their  companions  are  absent, 
two  or  three,  or  more,  who  are  lazy  and  won't  come,  and  these 
they  make  fun  of,  singing  out,  "  Those  who  won't  play  because 
all  their  thoughts  are  about  eating,  friends  of  the  iron  cooking- 
pot  ;  take  care  you  don't  choke  with  a  little  bit  of  skin."  Those 
indoors  hearing  this,  answer,  "  That's  all  very  fine  ;  you  see  our 
fat  fowls,  and  so  say,  '  Come  and  play.'  "  (These  children  who 
don't  play  are  often  still  killing  fowls  or  geese,  or  cooking  their 
share,  the  gizzards  and  livers,  and  feet  and  heads.)  So  when 
they  go  out,  either  that  evening  or  on  the  following  day,  they 


220 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


are  saluted  with  shouts  of  "  Stuffed  with  gravy,  Ikalovy ! 
Stuffed  with  gravy,  Ikalovy!"  and  also,  "Keep  by  yourselves 
like  lepers,  O  !  " 

The  first  play  on  the  list  is  called  Rasarlndra,  the  meaning 
of  which  word  is  not  very  clear,  but  the  game  seems  very  like 
the  common  game  of  English  children  called  "  Fox  and 
Geese." 

Rasarindra. 

They  all  stand  in  a  row,  every  one  with  his  or  her  ^  lamba  (the  outer 
cloth)  tightly  girded  round  the  waist,  the  tallest  in  front,  and  the  younger 
and  weaker  behind  them,  each  taking  hold  of  the  tightly-bound  dress  of 
the  one  in  front.  Then  one  who  is  biggest  is  chosen  to  catch  the  rest, 
and  this  one  is  called  "  the  robber."  And  another  of  the  big  ones  is 
chosen  to  be  "  children's  mother,"  to  take  care  of  the  Httle  ones.  As  soon 
as  all  are  arranged,  the  "  robber  "  calls  out,  "  Where  is  Such-an-one  for 
us  ? "  mentioning  first  those  who  are  hindmost.  Calling  out  thus  she 
comes  near  to  the  mother,  who  answers,  "  We  won't  give  up  Such-an- 
one."  Then  touching  the  biggest  one,  she  says,  "  Where  is  the  children's 
mother  for  us  ? "  Then  they  all  shout  out,  "  We  won't  give  up  children's 
mother."  Then  the  catcher  calls  out  again,  "  W' here  then  is  our  little 
lamb  ?  "  So  the  youngest  at  the  end  of  the  line  answers  "  Meh  "  (imitating 
the  bleat  of  a  lamb).  Then  the  catcher  replies,  "  Here's  our  little  lamb," 
and  does  her  best  to  catch  the  youngest  and  last  of  the  row.  Having 
caught  this  one,  she  then  tries  to  catch  those  next  in  the  line,  one  after 
another,  until  they  are  all  caught,  the  children's  mother  meanwhile  pro- 
tecting them  all  in  her  power. 

Then  follow  descriptions  of  two  games  somewhat  resembling 
what  is  known  in  England  as  "  Oranges  and  Lemons,"  and 
ending  with  "  Here  comes  a  light  to  light  you  to  bed  ;  here 
comes  a  chopper  to  chop  off  the  last  man's  head."  They  are 
called 

Sbamlditra  (lit.,  "  Good  entering  ")  No.  i. 

Two  of  the  tallest  in  the  party  stand  up,  and  face  each 

^  These  games  are  chiefly  practised  by  girls,  or  by  girls  and  very  young 
boys. 


SONGS,  POETRY,  AND  MYTHICAL  CREATURES.  221 

other,  leaving  a  space  between  them  for  a  gateway ;  and 
clapping  their  hands  together  they  sing  : — 

Soamiditra  e,  miditra  e,  e  miditra  e  ! 
Good  entering  O,  entering  O,  entering  O  ! 

Then  the  lesser  ones  form  a  line  and  take  fast  hold  of  each 
other,  and  stooping  down,  sing  out : — 

Valala  manjoko  a  ;  Locusts  stooping  O  ! 

Kitraotrao  !  Fight,  fight ! 

Valala  mandr}'  a  ;  Locusts  lying  down  O  ! 

Mandriaria  !  Lie  down,  down  ! 

Aud  so  they  go  on,  entering  the  gateway  formed  by  the  two 
tall  ones,  and  when  the  least  come  up  to  them  then  these  two 
turn  round  also. 

Sbamidit7'a  No.  2. 

The  second  variation  of  the  above  game  has  more  singing 
in  it ;  but  the  children  arrange  themselves  in  the  same  way,, 
the  two  tallest  ones  and  the  rest  singing  alternately  as 
follows  : — 


Manasa,  relahy,  manasa  e  ? 

Tsy  ho  any,  relahy,  tsy  ho  any  e  ! 
Nahoana,  relahy,  nahoana  e  ? 

Tsy  ho  vary,  relahy,  tsy  ho  vary  e  ! 
Ho  vary,  relahy,  ho  var>-  e  ! 

Tsy  ho  hena,  relahy,  tsy  ho  hena  e  ! 
Ho  hena,  relahy,  ho  hena  e  ! 

Tsy  ho  akoho,  relahy,  tsy  ho  akoho  e  ! 
Ho  akoho,  relahy,  ho  akoho  e  ! 


We  bid  (you),  friends,  we  bid  you  ? 

We  won't  go  there,  friends,  we  won't 
go  there  ! 
Why  not  then,  friends,  why  not  ? 

Not  for  rice,  friends,  not  for  rice  ! 
For  rice,  friends,  for  rice  ! 

Not  for  meat,  friends,  not  for  meat ! 
For  meat,  friends,  for  meat  ! 

Not  for  fowls,  friends,  not  for  fowls  ! 
For  fowls,  friends,  for  fowls  ! 


And  so  they  go  on,  mentioning  other  kinds  of  food,  and  then 
all  the  different  fruits.  When  this  is  finished,  the  little  ones 
go  forward  to  enter,  making  at  the  same  time  a  loud  noise  and 
singing  : — 

Varavaran'  Andriambolamena, 
Ka  intelo  miditra  toy  ny  akanjo, 
Mpandrafitra  arivo  toy  ny  fantanana. 


222  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Doorway  of  Golden  Prince, 
Entering  three  times  like  the  dress, 
Cai-penters  a  thousand  like  the  weaving  staff.' 

Another  "variant"  of  this  song  is  given  by  my  friend,  the 
Rev.  J.  Richardson,  Principal  of  the  L.M.S.  Normal  School  at 
Antananarivo,  who  has  done  much  for  the  musical  progress 
of  the  Malagasy  by  instructing  them  in  the  Tonic  Sol-fa  system, 
and  has  also  written  numerous  excellent  hymns  as  well  as  some 
capital  school  songs.  As  he  also  supplies  the  Sol-fa  notation 
of  the  tune,  I  venture  to  extract  a  paragraph  or  two  from  a 
paper  of  his  on  "  Malagasy  Tonon-kira  (songs)  and  Hymno- 
logy "  in  the  Antananarivo  Annual,  No.  II.,  1876,  p.  24.  He 
says,  "  The  only  one  (song,  that  is)  where  an  approach  to 
rhythm  can  be  found  is  a  little  children's  play  song.  The 
children  join  hands,  and  the  first  two  take  up  the  strain, 
saying. 

We  bid  you  come,  we  bid  you. 

Then  they  are  answered  by  the  whole  body, 
We'll  not  go  there,  we'll  not  go. 
The  leaders  again  sing  out. 

And  why  (not  come),  and  why  (not)  ? 
The  whole  body  then  reply  again, 

It's  neither  rice  nor  saoiijo  (an  edible  arum.=) 

The  leaders  cry  out,  and  lift  up  their  arms  with  hands  joined  as 
in  a  country  dance, 

It's  the  Cardinal-bird's  house. 

To  which  the  whole  troop  of  children  cry  out  as  they  pass 
under. 

It's  a  red  house. 


'  This  is  the  literal  translation,  but  the  allusions  are  obscure. 
=  Colocasia  antiquovnni. 


SONGS,  POETRY,  AND  MYTHICAL  CRIoATURES.  223 


These  two  last  strains  are  repeated  until  all  have  passed  under. 
I  append  music  and  words  in  the  original  : — 


Key  F  or  E. 

The  leaders 
The  rest  : 
The  leaders 
The  rest  : 


D.C. 


Man- 
Tsv  ho 

"Na- 
Ts V  ho 


s    : — .8  :m 

a  -  sa  re- 
a  -  ny  re- 
hoa-na  re- 
va  -  ry  re- 


:— .r  :  d 

-  hy,  man- 

-  hy,  tsy  ho 

-  hy,  na- 

-  hv,  tsv 


d  :—  :— 

s    : — 

as' 

e 

any 

e 

hoan' 

e 

saonjo 

e 

The  leaders 
The  rest : 


Tranon-drafody  la- 
Trano  me- 


d 

hy 
na 


This  little  thing  is  very  popular  among  the  youngsters,  and 
they  spend  hours  upon  hours  over  it.  It  is  the  most  correct 
as  to  rhythm  that  I  can  find  in  the  Tbnon-kira,  although  I  have 
a  pretty  large  collection  in  my  possession." 

The  two  next  plays  described  are  called  Sakbda,  a  word 
whose  meaning  is  not  at  all  clear.  The  first  of  these  is  played 
thus :  the  children  sit  in  two  opposite  rows  ;  one  side  calls  out, 
singing  to  the  other,  and  is  answered  as  follows  : — 


Rafara  e,  Rafara  ! 

Ahoana  e,  ahoana  ? 
Nankai;:a  e  ivadin-driako  ? 

Lasa  e  nandranto. 
Rahy  maty  e,  atao  ahoana  ? 

Fonosin-dravin-tatamo. 
Ravin-tatamo  tsy  mahafono  azy, 
Fa  lamba  mena  no  mahafono  azy, 


Rafara  O,  Rafara  !  ^ 

What  is  it  then,  what  is  it  ? 
Where  has  your  husband  gone  ? 

He's  gone  away  a-trading. 
Should  he  be  dead,  what  then  ? 

Wrap  him  in  leaves  of  water-lily, 
\\"ater-lily  leaves  won't  wrap  him, 
But  a  red  lamba  ^  will  wrap  him. 


Then  they  change  the  song  and  sin^ 


Very  vakana  aho,  rizavavy  ! 

Vakana  inona,  rizavavy  ? 
Jijikely,  rizavavy. 

Hombaina  mitady  va,  rizavavy  ? 
Kilalaoko  omeko  andriako, 
Kilalaoko  omeko  andriako  ! 


I've  lost  my  beads,  lasses  ! 

What  sort  of  beads,  lasses  ? 
Little  beads,  lasses. 

Shall  we  go  with  you  to  seek  them, 
lasses  ? 
My  toys  I'll  give  my  lady, 
My  toys  I'll  give  my  lady  ! 


*  A  common  name  for  a  girl,  a  contraction  of  Rafaravavy,  the  "last  female," 
or  youngest  girl,  in  a  family. 

^  Among  the  Hovas  and  some  other  tribes  the  dead  are  always  wrapped 
tightly  in  a  number  of  red  cloths  or  lamba. 


224 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


And  when  that  is  finished  they  all  rise  and  leap  about  like  frogs, 
at  the  same  time  slapping  their  chests  ;  and  those  who  are  tired 
first  and  stop  are  considered  as  beaten. 

The  Sakoda  No.  2  is  much  the  same  kind  of  game,  but  with 
different  words. 

Another  game  is  called  Dian-trandraka,^  i.e.,  "  Hedgehog- 
steps,"  and  is  played  by  all  the  party  arranging  themselves  in 
rows,  those  behind  taking  hold  of  those  in  front,  all  singing  and 
bending  down  in  imitation  of  the  movements  of  the  animal 
which  gives  its  name  to  the  play. 

Another  game,  resembling  our  English  children's  play  of 
"  Tig  "  and  "  Touching  wood,"  is  called  Kibbkabbka  {bbka  is  the 
Malagasy  word  for  a  leper) ;  it  is  played  thus  : — 

The  children  all  take  fast  hold  of  hands  and  form  a  large 
ring,  and  put  one  of  the  number  to  stand  in  the  middle  of  the 
circle.    Then  they  go  round  and  from  side  to  side,  singing, 

Those  who  touch  this  one  are  lepers  ; 
Those  who  touch  this  one  are  lepers. 

And  those  who  touch  the  one  in  the  centre  they  call  bbka  (a 
leper)  and  place  in  the  middle  as  well,  not  stopping  the  game 
until  every  one  has  been  touched.  And  when  that  is  finished, 
every  one  bows  down  to  the  ground  and  says  :  "  Listen,  O 
grandfather  beneath  the  earth,  for  I  am  no  leper,  for  the  lepers 
at  Namehana^  only  are  lepers."  Then  they  spit,  saying  "Poa."3 
In  the  second  form  of  this  game  the  children  assemble  in 
some  numbers,  and  one  of  them  hides  a  small  stone,  concealing 
it  inside  the  palm  of  the  hand,  putting  it  opposite  one  or  other 
of  his  fingers.  He  then  bids  his  companions  choose,  and  when 
one  guesses  right  the  finger  where  the  little  stone  is,  that  one 
is  called  bbka,  and  they  all  rush  away  to  save  themselves  upon 

^  The  Traudraka  is  a  small  animal  allied  to  the  hedgehogs,  belonging  to  the 
family  Centetidae,  of  the  order  Insectivora. 

2  This  is  one  of  the  old  towns  in  Imerina,  where  those  afflicted  with  this 
disease  live  separate  from  other  people. 

3  It  is  a  common  practice  with  the  Malagasy  to  spit  if  they  smell  anything 
offensive.    See  Folk-Lore  Record,  vol.  ii.  p.  37. 


SONGS,  POETRY,  AND  MYTHICAL  CREATURES.  225 


some  stone.  But  when  they  come  down  on  the  ground  they 
are  chased  by  the  one  called  bbka,  and  if  he  touches  any  one 
then  his  leprosy  removes  to  the  one  touched.  And  so  they  go 
on  until  all  have  had  their  turn.  At  the  end  they  all  spit,  and 
say  "  Poa,  for  it  is  not  I  who  am  a  leper." 

Another  game  is  called  Mifampibaby,  i.e.,  "  Carrying  each 
other  on  the  back,"  the  little  ones  being  carried  by  the  big  ones 
round  the  house,  with  the  following  ditty  : — 

Cany  me  on  your  back,  O  big  one  ! 

Where  shall  I  carry  you,  eh  ? 
Carry  me  to  follow  a  clod,  oh  ? 

What  sort  of  clod  is  that,  eh  ? 
The  Takatra's  ^  nest,  I  mean,  oh  ! 

That  Takatra  whose  mate  is  dead,  eh  ? 
Take  me  home,  O  big  one. 

"  Star-killing "  {Mambno  klntana)  is  the  name  of  another 
children's  play,  also  a  favourite  one  on  moonlight  nights.  A 
number  of  them  sitting  together  get  a  little  sheep's  dung ;  and 
then,  looking  at  the  stars,  they  choose  one  of  the  brightest,  and 
say,  "  We'll  kill  (or  put  out)  that  one."  Then  one  of  them  who 
has  a  good  voice  sings  the  following,  the  rest  taking  up  the 
strain  : — 

Rubbed  with  sheep's  dung, 

Tomato  seed,  gourd  seed  ; 

Cucumbers  full  of  flatten,'. 

Flattered  by  that  deceiver, 

Shall  he  die  whose  fate  is  evil  ?  &c.  &c. 

A  somewhat  more  elaborate  game  is  called  Petapetaka 
Inenibe  {petaka  means  "  adhering  to,"  "  sticking  to,"  and  Inenibe 
is  "  granny  ").  A  number  of  children  being  gathered  together 
they  all  choose  one  about  whom  they  say,  "  Dead  is  Granny 
Mrs.  Moon-dead-by-day-but-living-by-night"  (or  "Extinguished- 

This  one  they  place  in  the  middle  and  cover  her  up  with  a 


^  The  Takatra  (Scopus  umbrctta')  is  a  stork  which  builds  a  very  large  and  con- 
spicuous nest  in  the  trees,  cari-^ing  up  a  great  quantity  of  dr>' grass  and  sticks,  &'C. 

i6 


226  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


quantity  of  clothes.  Then  they  all  pretend  to  weep,  and  sing 
out : 

Oh  granny  O  !  oh  granny  ! 

Desolate,  desolate,  say  I,  O  ! 

Your  grandchildren  young  locusts  passing. 

And  so  wake  up,  wake  up,  say  I,  O  ! 

For  miserable  are  the  many  children  ; 

And  so  come  back,  come  back,  say  I,  O  ! 

For  starving  are  the  many  little  ones  ! 

Then  they  call  out  for  some  time,  telling  the  calamity  which 
has  befallen  them.  Then  they  keep  quite  still  for  a  little  while, 
which  they  call  the  night  for  sleeping,  and  for  the  old  lady  to 
appear  to  them  all  in  their  dreams  (literally,  for  "  pressing,"  or 
squeezing,"  a  word  used  to  express  the  supposed  inspiration 
of  people  by  the  Vazimba  ^  or  by  the  spirit  of  their  ancestors). 
During  this  time  the  one  they  call  the  dead  old  lady  pretends 
to  inspire  (or  appear  in  dreams  to)  them  all,  and  calls  out 
softly  : 

Oh  little  children,  O  ! 
Oh  little  children,  O  ! 
Cross  over  all  of  you. 
For  on  return  of  this 
Sunday  will  be  here. 
And  I  shall  rise  up  then. 

After  a  little  pause  they  all  speak,  saying  :  "  Granny  pressed  me 
(or  appeared  to  me)  that  she'll  be  alive"  (again).  Waiting  a 
little  longer  still,  they  say,  "  The  time's  come."  Then  granny 
gets  up,  and  they  pat  her  with  their  hands,  saying  : 

Petapetaka  Inenibe, 
Petapetaka  Inenibe. 

Then  they  all  rejoice  very  much,  dancing  and  beating  their 

*  These  are  believed  to  be  the  inhabitants  of  the  central  provinces  of  Mada- 
gascar, and  unacquainted  with  the  use  of  iron  ;  and  are  said  to  have  been  driven 
westward  by  a  Hova  king,  named  Andriamanelo.  See  Chapter  II.  p.  26,  ante.  A 
remnant  of  this  tribe  is  said  to  be  still  existing  in  the  western  part  of  Mada- 
gascar. Their  tombs  are  regarded  with  superstitious  dread,  and  they  are  sup- 
posed to  appear  to  people  in  their  dreams.  They  are  mostly  malevolent  spirits, 
according  to  the  popular  belief. 


SONGS,  POETRY,  AND  MYTHICAL  CREATURES.  22/ 

breasts,  and  singing  and  making  a  loud  humming  noise,  with 
these  words  : 

Kodonga  Ramblta,' 
Kodongo-dahy  ; 
Kodonga  Rambita, 
Kodongo-dahy  ! 

The  annual  festival  of  the  Fandroana  or  Bathing,  at  the 
new  year,  is  a  time  of  great  rejoicing  among  the  Malagasy, 
or,  more  strictly  speaking,  among  the  Hova  in  the  central 
I  provinces.  On  the  day  when  bullocks  are  killed,  the  children 
in  Antananarivo  assemble  in  great  numbers  in  Imahamasina, 
a  large  plain  below  the  city  to  the  west,  and  at  Isoanierana, 
to  the  south-west.  They  all  put  on  clean  lambas  and  dresses, 
wearing  earrings  and  necklaces,  and  some  being  carried  in 
palanquins.  They  carry  with  them  fruit  of  different  kinds,  and 
small  plates,  bottles,  glasses,  and  baskets,  and  go  along  singing 
until  they  come  to  the  places  just  mentioned.  Arrived  at 
Imahamasina  each  party  places  the  fruit  on  the  plates,  and 
fills  the  glasses  with  water  ;  one  division  then  calls  out  : 

May  we  enter,  ladies  ? 

The  others  reply  : 

Pray  walk  in,  ladies. 

Certainly,  ladies. 
We  bring  you  a  little  feast. 

May  you  live  long,  ladies,  in  good  health  ; 
Yes,  may  God  bless  us  all,  ladies  ; 

and  so  on,  imitating  the  formal  and  polite  speeches  of  their 
elders  when  paying  visits.  Then  having  eaten  the  fruit  they 
sing  and  dance,  during  the  afternoon  singing  a  number  of  songs, 
whose  titles  only  are  given.  The  children  in  the  country  places 
have  a  somewhat  different  custom,  for  they  take  meat  with  them 
to  feast  upon. 

Before  concluding  this  part  of  the  subject,  another  children's 

^  Many  of  the  words  in  these  games  are  really  untranslatable,  as  they  have 
no  equivalent  in  English. 


228  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

amusement  may  be  mentioned,  although  it  is  by  no  means 
confined  to  children,  viz.,  songs  and  ditties  intended  to  help  in 
learning  to  count.  Mr.  Richardson,  in  the  second  number  of 
the  Publications  of  the  Malagasy  Folk-lore  Society,  gives  ten 
specimens  of  these  productions,  one  of  them  being  a  song  of 
ten  verses  of  four  lines  each,  but  most  having  only  ten  lines, 
and  some  only  four.  In  some  of  these  ditties  there  is  a  punning 
on  the  form  of  the  different  words  for  the  numbers  up  to  ten, 
some  word  of  similar  sound  being  brought  in  to  help  the 
memory.  This  is  much  the  same  as  if  we,  to  help  to  remember 
the  number  "  one,"  brought  in  the  word  "  won  "  in  connection 
with  it ;  or  with  "  four,"  "  before  "  ;  or  with  "  eight,"  "  abate," 
8z:c.    Here  is  a  specimen  verse  or  two  : — 

I,  E,  Andrian/srt  /  e  Andrian/sa  /  i.  O  Mister  One  !  O  Mister  One  ! 

Aza  man/s^T  ny  efa  tsy  nety  e  !  Do  not  count  (lit.,  "  do  one  ")  the  un- 

E,  homba  anao  aho  re  !  willing,  O  ! 

E,  ry  izy  aroy  e  !  O,  I'll  go  along  with  you  ! 

O,  he's  yonder  there  ! 

6.  E,  Andrianc/z/7m  /  e  Andrian('/z/;m  /  6.  O  Mister  Six  !  O  Mister  Six  ! 
Aza  manc;?/;m  ^  alohan'ny,  olona  e  !       Do  not  regret  before  people  O  ! 
E,  homba  anao  aho  re  !  O,  I'll  go  along  with  you  ! 

E,  ry  izy  aroy  e  !  O,  he's  yonder  there  ! 

8.  E,  Andriam6rt/(7,  e  Andriam6n/o  /       8.  O  Mister  Eight !  O  Mister  Eight ! 
Miiv7/o  ^  fanahy  tsy  haditra  e  !  Begging  pardon,  will  not  be  obstinate, 

E,  homba  anao  aho  re  !  O  ! 

E,  ry  izy  aroy  e  !  O,  I'll  go  along  with  you  ! 

O,  he's  yonder  there  ! 

In  the  following  the  numbers  are  simply  applied  to  different 
objects : — 

Isa  ny  amontana,  One  the  avwiitaiia  (tree). 

Roa  ny  aviavy,  Two  the  aviavy  (trees). 

Telo  fangady.  Three  spades. 

Efa-drofia,  Four  rofia  (palms). 

Dimy  emboka,  Five  gums. 


^  Playing  on  the  similarity  of  sound  between  the  words  cniiia,  six,  and 
maneiiiiia,  to  regret.    The  words  are  shown  by  italics. 

=  A  play  on  the  words  balo  =  valo,  eight,  and  viivalo,  to  abjectly  beg  pardon  ; 
on  account  of  these  similarities  in  sound  to  unpleasant  ideas,  both  six  and  eight 
are  considered  unlucky  numbers.    See  Folk-Lorc  Record,  vol.  ii.  p.  38. 


SONGS,  POETRY,  AND  MYTHICAL  CREATURES. 


229 


Eni-mangamanga, 
Fito  paraky, 


Six  blues. 

Seven  tobacco  (plants). 
Eight  castor-oil  (shrubs). 
Nine  hemp  (plants). 
Ten  twistings  ! 


Valo  tanantanana, 
Sivy  rongony, 


Polo  fanolehana ! 


In  another,  words  are  chosen  in  each  of  the  ten  lines  that  con- 
tain the  words  for  the  numbers  from  one  to  ten  ;  they  are 
mostly  names  of  plants,  grasses,  &c.  : — 


H/sntra  (the  peel  of  rushes). 

Tsindrortdrorttra  (a  grass,  Sporoboliis  indiciis,  R.Br.), 
rt  /orirana  (Cypcnis  sp.). 
£/anina  (?) 

Diiig3.d  in  gam.  (a  shrub,  Psiadia  dodoncv  cufolia,  St.) 
Voninr;7///a  (a  herb,  Epallagc  dcnfata,  D.C.) 
F//atra  (a  bird,  sp.  of  Warbler,  Pratincola  sybilla,  L.) 
Kim6a/om6a/ontandroka  (the  core  of  a  horn). 
S/t-ana  (Eng.  a  sieve). 
Tsipolopolotra. !  (the  seeds  of  Bidciis  sp.). 


Some  seem  merely  nonsense  rhymes ;  and  others  carry  on  the 
last  syllables  of  one  line  to  the  first  of  the  next : — 


Section  III. :  Marvellous  Creatures,  or  Bogey 
Stories. — The  Malagasy,  like  most  uncivilised  peoples,  are 
fond  of  the  marvellous,  and  many  are  the  wonderful  stories 
told  of  strange  creatures  and  unearthly  appearances  some  of 
them  have  seen.     Several  of  the  extraordinary  creatures  are 


Aingisa, 
Aingoa, 
Talonga, 


Voa  manisa, 
Voa  manapih', 
Pily  maka, 
Maka  ity, 
Ity  koa, 
Tabarasily, 
Sily  kely, 
Tangorom-bola, 
Hazon-dandy, 

Tsy  folo  va  izao  o  ?    (Isn't  that  ten  ?) 


'Xdrafanga, 


Diminga, 

Aiminga, 

Tsitonga, 

Valonga, 

Tsivaza, 

Aigo  ! 


Roa  an-jaza  ; 
Telo  am-behivavy  ; 
Efatra  an-dehilahy  ; 
Raika  tsy  tia  be  ! 


Two  for  the  child  ; 
Three  for  the  woman  ; 
Four  for  the  man  ; 
One's  not  Hked  much  ! 


230  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

described  in  Mr.  Dahle's  book,  and  I  shall  therefore  give  a 
translation  of  what  is  said  about  each  of  them,  only  omitting  a 
few  sentences  which  are  merely  wordy  repetitions.  In  a  note 
to  the  heading  of  Sampon-jdvatra  Sdsany  Mdhagdga,  or 
"  Sundry  Marvellous  Stories,"  it  is  said  that  these  stories  come 
from  the  Betsileo  district,  the  southern-central  province  of 
Madagascar.  It  will  be  seen  that  some  of  the  strange  creatures 
here  described  are  not  animals,  but  have  some  connection  with 
humanity  :  the  kindly  being  a  grisly  reappearance  of  men  after 
death ;  the  angaldpona  being  a  kind  of  water-sprite  ;  while  the 
siona  is  a  diminutive  elf  of  pilfering  propensities. 

I.  The  SongbmbyJ- — The  Songbmby,  they  say,  is  an  animal 
as  big  as  an  ox  and  fleet  of  foot,  and  is  said  to  eat  men.  In 
former  times  (not  very  long  ago)  the  people  in  the  south  thought 
the  horse  ^  was  a  Songbmby  come  from  abroad.  The  way  it  is 
caught,  they  say,  is  thus :  A  child  is  fastened  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Songbmby s  den,  so  that  it  cries,  and  a  net  is  spread  at  the 
entrance,  whereupon  the  creature  comes  and  is  snared.  Near 
our  town  (says  the  author  of  this  account)  is  a  hole  in  the  rock 
where  the  people  think  there  is  a  Songbmby.  When  it  sees  any 
one  it  attacks  them  fiercely,  but  the  female,  it  is  said,  does  not 
fight  much,  but  only  encourages  the  male,  so  that  they  always 
go  together.  It  once  happened,  they  say,  that  a  certain  man 
was  going  about  by  night,  and  met  with  the  Songbmby.  He 
fought  most  bravely  all  night,  and,  being  a  very  strong  man, 
was  not  hurt.  Another  story  about  it  is  that  a  naughty  child 
was  put  by  its  father  and  mother  outside  the  house,  and  would 
have  been  devoured  by  one  of  these  creatures  had  it  not  been 
quickly  rescued.  And  another  day,  the  tale  goes,  a  child  was 
punished  in  the  same  way,  the  parents  calling  out,  "  Here's  your 
share,  Mr.  Songomby !  "   Then  the  beast  really  came  up,  where- 

*  The  two  words  apparently  composing  this  name  mean  respectively  as  follows  : 
songa,  "having  the  upper  lip  turned  upward,  uncovered,"  and  omby,  an  ox.  Son- 
gomby means,  figuratively,  "  lion-hearted." 

^  The  horse  is  of  quite  modern  introduction  into  Madagascar ;  it  is  called,  by  a 
corruption  of  the  French  word,  sbavaly  =  chcval. 


SONGS,  POETRY,  AND  MYTHICAL  CREATURES.  23 1 

upon  the  child  cried  out,  "  Oh,  here  he  really  is  ! "  But  the 
parents  replied,  "  Well,  let  him  eat  you,"  thinking  it  was  only 
the  child's  deception.  After  a  little  while  they  opened  the  door, 
and  lo !  the  child  had  gone.  So  the  parents  and  the  villagers 
made  a  great  stir,  and  took  torches  to  seek  it,  and  lo !  there  was 
child's  blood  dropped  on  the  road  all  the  way  to  the  beast's  den. 
Many  other  stories  are  also  told,  which  the  people  think  confirm 
the  truth  of  the  existence  of  this  creature. 

2.  The  Fanany  with  Seven  Heads. — This  creature,  they  say, 
is  something  which  comes  from  man,  for  there  are  certain  people 
whose  intestines  turn  into  Fanany ;  but  sometimes  it  does  not 
come  from  their  intestines,  but  from  their  corpse  as  a  whole 
when  it  becomes  corrupt.  On  this  account  it  is  said  to  be  a 
frequent  custom  in  certain  districts  in  the  south  for  the  people 
to  take  the  intestines  of  their  dead  relatives  and  place  them  in 
a  river  or  small  pool,  so  that  they  may  turn  into  a  Fanany.  But 
the  people  who  change  into  this  creature,  they  say,  are  of  royal 
(or  noble)  descent.  So  that  because  of  this  belief  they  kill  oxen 
when  they  see  a  large  creature  they  believe  to  be  a  Fanany^  and 
give  it  blood  and  rum  to  drink  and  ox-hump  to  eat.  When  it 
first  appears  they  say  it  ascends  into  the  town  where  it  was 
produced,  that  is,  where  the  person  from  whom  it  came  formerly 
lived,  and  there  the  people  of  the  place  ask  it,  "  Art  thou  Such- 
an-one  ?  "  And  if  the  name  they  mention  was  really  its  own,  it 
nods  its  head  ;  but  if  it  does  not  correspond,  it  shakes  its  head. 
They  then  go  on  mentioning  the  names  of  all  the  famous 
deceased  nobles  in  the  surrounding  district  until  the  creature 
acknowledges  one  of  them  as  its  own  ;  and  as  soon  as  this  is 
arrived  at,  they  kill  oxen  as  just  described. 

The  animal  is  similar  in  appearance  to  the  water-snake  and 
the  Mdnditra  (another  snake).  It  is  a  fierce  creature,  and  has 
seven  heads  ;  and  when  it  has  grown  full  size,  each  of  its  heads 
has  a  horn  growing  on  it.  There  was  a  certain  man  named 
Ralako,  who  conversed  with  me  (says  the  narrator  of  this),  and 
this  he  says  he  saw  :  The  Fanany  fought  with  a  bull  during  the 


232  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

night,  and  each  fought  hard.  And  during  the  conflict  the  Fandny 
did  not  bite  with  its  mouth,  but  fought  with  its  seven  horns  ; 
each  of  these  was  successively  broken,  until  at  last  it  was  killed 
by  the  bull.  Just  before  death  it  drew  itself  up  and  swelled  out 
to  the  size  of  a  mountain,  so  that  all  the  villages  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood could  not  be  inhabited  on  account  of  the  effluvium.  It 
was  a  man  from  Imamo  (the  western  part  of  Imerina,  the  central 
province)  who  told  me  this,  and  it  was  there,  he  said,  that  it 
happened. 

There  is  also  another  story  about  the  Fandny  as  follows : 
When  it  becomes  big,  they  say  it  encircles  a  mountain  (Itritriva^ 
is  said  to  be  one  of  such  mountains) ;  and  when  its  head  and  tail 
meet  and  there  is  anything  to  spare  besides  what  goes  round  the 
mountain,  the  creature  eats  it ;  and  when  that  is  done,  some  say 
that  it  sticks  its  tail  into  the  earth  and  mounts  up  to  the  sky  ; 
but  others  say  that  it  goes  into  some  great  piece  of  water 
sufficient  for  its  size.  It  remained  in  the  lake  of  Itritriva,  they 
say,  but  when  it  became  too  big  for  the  lake  it  removed  to 
Andraikiba  (a  lake  west  of  Antsirabe,  in  the  same  neighbour- 
hood), and  there  it  remains  up  to  the  present  time. 

I  have  seen  the  animal  called  the  Fandny  (says  the  native 
narrator),  but  I  have  not  seen  either  its  seven  heads  or  any 
appearance  of  them  ;  and  on  asking  the  people  the  reason  of 
this,  they  replied  that  it  was  yet  too  young.  The  size  of  the 
creature  they  pointed  out  to  me  was  about  that  of  an  adult 
mdnditra,  or  somewhat  less. 

3.  The  Tbkantongotra  or  Tokaiidia  ("Single-foot"  or  "Single- 
step"). — This  is  a  large  white  animal  (but  smaller  than  the 
Songbmby),  and,  as  its  name  implies,  its  feet  are  not  cloven,  and 
it  does  not  mean  that  the  animal  has  a  single  leg  in  front  and  a 
single  one  behind,  as  several  European  writers  have  described. 
It  is  an  exceedingly  swift  animal,  so  that  no  other  creature  has 
a  chance  of  escaping  it.    It  eats  men,  and  goes  about  at  night 

^  This  is  the  name  of  an  extinct  volcano  in  the  Northern  Betsileo  country.  The 
crater  is  occupied  by  a  lake  of  profound  depth.    See  Chap,  V. 


SONGS,  POETRY,  AND  MYTHICAL  CREATURES.  233 

like  the  Songbviby.  There  are  people  who  say  they  have  seen 
it,  but  few  compared  with  those  who  testify  to  the  existence  of 
the  Songbviby.^ 

4.  The  Kinbly. — This  creature  is  said  to  be  human.  When 
any  one  dies  who  turns  into  a  Kinbly,  he  is  buried  by  the  rela- 
tives, until  the  intestines  and  the  skin  of  the  stomach  all  decay ; 
and  when  that  is  the  case,  they  open  up  the  tomb  so  that  the 
Kinbly  may  go  out ;  so  it  goes  out.  Their  eyes  are  red  and 
their  nails  long,  but  they  are  no  longer  like  the  living ;  yet  the 
whole  body,  except  the  portions  already  mentioned,  is  like  that 
of  a  human  being.  They  are  said  to  be  constantly  thieving  ; 
and  when  any  one  leaves  out  cooked  rice  or  other  food,  they 
take  it.  Sometimes  they  also  steal  rice  in  the  husk,  but  it  is 
said  they  can  hardly  carry  any  burden  ;  and  a  story  is  told  of 
some  one  who  saw  two  Kinbly  stealing  rice,  and  hid  himself  to 
observe  their  procedure.  They  filled  with  rice  some  vessel  they 
carried,  and  the  male  one  carried  the  burden,  putting  it  on  his 
shoulder ;  but  as  soon  as  it  rested  there,  he  cried,  "  I'm  killed  ; 
O  my  shoulder  !  "  Then  said  the  female,  "  There's  no  carrying 
it ;  where  is  it?  I'll  carry  it."  Then  she  carried  it  on  her  head 
(that  is  their  custom  when  both  husband  and  wife  die) ;  but  as 
soon  as  it  was  placed  there,  she  called  out,  "  I'm  killed  ;  O  my 
head  !  "  Another  story  is  told  of  a  person  suddenly  meeting  a 
Kinbly  one  day,  and,  seeing  the  redness  of  its  eyes  and  the 
length  of  its  nails,  said,  "  How  is  it  your  eyes  are  so  red  ?  "  It 
replied,  "  God  passed  by  them."  Then  he  asked  again,  "  How  is 
it  your  nails  are  so  long?"  It  replied,  "That  I  may  tear  out 
your  liver"  (or  inside),  upon  which  it  tore  the  man.  In  the 
Betsileo  province  people  say  that  there  are  Kinbly  up  to  the 
present  time,  and  this  not  long  ago,  but  quite  recently.  Among 
the  inhabitants  there  are  many  who  believe  in  the  reappearance 
of  these  bowelless  people ;  but  they  think  it  is  a  cause  of  lamen- 
tation, both  to  the  person  himself  and  also  to  his  relations,  to 
become  a  Ki^tbly. 

^  It  is  commonly  said  that  those  who  even  see  the  Tbkand)a  are  immediately- 
struck  dead  or  senseless. 


234  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

5.  The  Dona  or  Pily^ — This  animal  is  one  of  the  fiercest  of 
creatures  ;  it  is  big  and  long,  and  its  skin  is  striped,  so  that 
makers  of  lamba  take  it  as  a  pattern  for  striped  cloths.  During 
the  day  it  is  quite  gentle,  so  that  even  an  infant  can  play  with  it 
and  take  no  harm,  but  when  night  comes  on  there  is  hardly  any 
other  creature  so  fierce.  They  say  it  bellows  like  a  bull.  If  any 
animal  or  man  meets  it  at  night,  it  encircles  him  at  the  loins 
and  compresses  him  so  tightly  that  in  a  very  short  time  the 
object  attacked  is  dead.  It  has  the  power  of  making  its  body 
big  or  little,  something  like  indiarubber.  It  is  very  crafty,  so 
that  when  it  meets  with  a  serpent  (^Menarana\  which  is  a  creep- 
ing creature  like  itself,  it  appears  to  be  afraid,  and  makes  its 
body  small.  Then  comes  the  serpent  and  twines  round  it,  and 
then  raises  its  tail  to  strike  the  Dona  (for  the  tail  of  the  Menarana 
is  barbed,  they  say,  like  a  spear,  and  it  kills  its  victims  by  this 
means).  Then  the  Dona  swells  its  body  suddenly,  so  that  the 
Menarana  is  broken,  as  if  cut  with  a  knife.  Such  is  its  power 
that  it  is  said  to  be  able  to  force  its  way  out  of  its  hole,  although 
opposed  by  the  strength  of  the  strongest  man  stopping  it  up 
with  a  cloth  stuffed  in  at  the  entrance.  Whistling,  it  appears, 
makes  the  Dona  angry,  although  in  the  daytime  it  is  usually 
tame. 

6.  The  Lalomena  or  Lalimena. — This  animal  is  like  the  ox, 
but  lives  in  the  water.  It  has  two  horns,  and  they  are  very  red, 
and  it  is  said  to  be  amongst  the  strongest  of  the  animals  which 
live  in  the  water.  It  is  difficult  to  say  exactly  what  its  appear- 
ance and  qualities  are,  for  there  is  much  of  the  fabulous  mixed 

*  PWy  is  the  name  of  a  serpent.  This  account  is,  I  think,  hardly  correctly  put 
under  the  heading  of  superstitious  beliefs  ;  except  in  two  or  three  points,  it  is 
rather  a  piece  of  natural  history  observation,  for  there  is  no  question  at  all  about 
the  existence  in  the  western  and  warmer  parts  of  Madagascar  of  one  or  more 
species  of  boa.  These  examples  of  the  widely-spread  tropical  pythons  belong  to 
a  peculiar  genus,  Sanzinia ;  hanging  from  the  branches  of  the  trees,  these  ser- 
pents are  said  to  pounce  suddenly  on  their  victims,  and,  enveloping  them  in  their 
folds,  speedily  squeeze  them  to  death.  They  are  even  said  to  kill  oxen,  and 
occasionally  man,  but  doubtless  a  good  deal  of  superstition  is  mixed  up  with  the 
native  accounts  of  them. 


SONGS,  POETRY,  AND  MYTHICAL  CREATURES.  235 

up  with  the  accounts  of  it.  It  seems  possible  that  this  word 
retains  traditions  of  the  Madagascar  species  of  Hippopotamus, 
an  animal  whose  sub-fossil  bones  have  been  found  in  the  alluvial 
deposits  of  Antslrabe  in  the  Vakinankaratra  district,  south  of 
Imerina,  as  well  as  on  the  south-west  coast,  and  which  possibly 
was  still  living  when  the  island  was  first  peopled.  These  remains 
are  said  to  be  called  those  of  the  Lalonihia  by  the  people  there. 

7.  The  Angaldp07ia. — This  creature  is  among  things  which 
are  related  to  man,  they  say,  although  it  is  not  so  large  as  a 
human  being.  Its  abode  is  said  to  be  in  the  water,  but  yet  it  is 
not  wetted  by  it,  for  they  say  there  is  a  cave  within  the  water 
into  which  water  does  not  enter,  and  there  the  Angalapona  lives. 
The  door  by  which  it  goes  out  and  in  turns  in  the  water,  and  so 
is  the  road  by  which  it  passes  to  and  fro,  but  yet  it  is  not  at  all 
wet,  although  traversing  water  in  this  way.  As  regards  its  size, 
it  is  a  little  larger  than  a  young  child.  Its  hair  is  very  long,  so 
that  when  it  stands  upright  it  almost  reaches  the  ground.  It  is 
considered  by  the  people  to  be  the  director  of  divination  and 
(fortunate)  day  foretelling,  &c.,  so  that  the  diviners  call  upon  it 
when  working  the  oracle  with  the  words,  "  Arise,  for  thou  hast 
come  from  Long-hair,"  &c. 

There  are  two  persons  still  living  who  say  that  they  have 
certainly  seen  it ;  their  names  are  Renisoarahanoro  and  Raini- 
tsimanahy.  The  former  (a  woman)  chanced  to  be  in  the  unin- 
habited country,  and  was  called  by  a  name,  a  name  which  is 
pleasing  to  the  Anga/dpofia.  (For  names  such  as  Rasoa^  and 
the  like  are  pleasing  to  this  creature,  so  that  it  fetches  such 
as  bear  these  names.)  So  the  Angalapona  came  and  took  her 
towards  its  den,  passing  through  the  water,  but  neither  it  nor 
the  woman  was  wetted  at  all.  But  when  they  came  to  the  cave, 
she  would  not  go  forward,  but  remained  at  the  side  of  the  door ; 
neither  would  she  eat  food,  disliking  the  things  eaten  by  the 

^  This  is  a  very  common  female  name  among  the  Malagas}',  both  in  this  short 
form  and  also  in  combination  with  other  words.  Ra  is  the  personal  prefix,  sba 
is  "  good,  pleasant  agreeable," 


236  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Angalapona,  such  as  raw  eels  and  cray-fish  and  the  like.  And 
so  because  she  would  remain  always  at  the  doorway,  her  clothes 
became  covered  with  water-plants.  So  the  Angalapona  and  his 
wife  considered  together  what  they  should  do  with  her,  and  they 
agreed  to  send  her  back  home.  This  they  did  after  giving  her 
(power  to  work)  divination.  And  now  she  is  applied  to  by  the 
people  for  that  purpose. 

And  Rainitsimanahy's  account  is  that  he  was  in  the  unin- 
habited region,  and  at  the  time  when  every  one  is  fast  asleep  an 
Angalapona  came  and  desired  him  to  be  its  husband.  But  as  he 
would  not  agree  to  this,  it  followed  him  about  perpetually. 

Many  of  the  people  say  that  they  have  seen  this  creature, 
-especially  those  who  are  afflicted  with  a  disease  called  jila. 

8.  The  Siona. — The  creature  so  called  has  also  something 
human  about  it,  but  it  is  different  both  from  the  Kindly  and  the 
Angalapona.  It  is  said  to  live  away  from  men,  and  when  any 
one  goes  through  the  uninhabited  country  and  does  not  take 
care  of  his  rice,  or  chopper,  these  are  taken  by  the  Siona,  they 
say,  and  conveyed  to  its  abode.  When  the  woodmen  go  to 
sleep,  and  leave  a  fire  still  burning  (for  their  custom  is  to  place 
a  big  log  on  the  hearth  before  sleeping,  so  that  they  may  be 
kept  warm),  then  this  creature  comes  and  warms  itself  Its  food 
is  a  root  called  Avoko  (  Vigna  angivensis,  Baker)  and  other  sub- 
stances. All  over  its  body  it  is  covered  with  lichen  growing 
upon  it,  so  that  when  it  lies  down  on  a  rock  it  is  not  distinguish- 
able, although  seen  close  to  the  place.  When  any  people  are  ill 
and  out  of  their  mind,  their  friends  are  afraid  lest  they  shall 
become  a  Siona ;  and  very  lately  it  was  reported  that  some 
people  narrowly  escaped  this  fate,  from  which  they  were  only 
saved  by  the  strenuous  efforts  of  their  friends. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


MALAGASY  FOLK-TALES  AND  FABLES. 


Bonia — Crocodile  and  Dog — Three  Sisters  and  Itrimobe — The  Members  of  the 
Body— The  Little  Bird— Rapeto— The  Lost  Son  of  God— The  Five  Fingers 
—The  Earth  and  the  Skies— The  Birds  choosing  a  King— The  Lizards — 
Hawk  and  Hen — Vazimba — Chameleon  and  Lizard — Sei-pent  and  Frog — 
The  Rice  and  Sugar-cane— Two  Rogues— Wild  Hog  and  Rat. 

^     7"E  now  come  to  the  last  division  of  the  subjects  treated 


V  V  of  in  our  text-book  (Rev.  L.  Dahle's  Malagasy  Folk-lore), 
that  of  Folk-tales  and  Fables — or,  as  they  are  called  in  MsXdi- 
gdiSy,  Angano  or  Arira  ;  i.e.,  fables,  tales,  and  legends.  These 
occupy  nearly  two-thirds  of  Mr.  Dahle's  book  (294  pp.),  and 
include  eighty-four  separate  pieces,  some  occupying  only  a 
single  paragraph,  while  others  extend  to  a  considerable  length. 
The  longest  story,  that  of  Bonia,  occupies  forty-seven  pages  ; 
another,  twenty-three  pages  ;  another,  thirteen  pages,  and  so  on, 
down  to  a  page  or  two.  About  twenty  of  these  stories  are 
fables  chiefly  referring  to  animals  ;  several  relate  passages  in 
the  adventures  of  two  Malagasy  rogues,  whose  fuller  history 
had  previously  been  published  in  a  separate  form  ;  some  partake 
of  the  character  of  nursery  rhymes  ;  some  are  mythic,  professing 
to  explain  the  origin  of  man  and  nature ;  and  several  are  giant 
stories,  in  which  a  monster  called  Itrimobe  is  a  prominent  actor. 

In  various  numbers  of  the  Folk-lore  Journal  for  1883  and 
1884  I  gave  translations  of  thirty-eight  of  these  compositions, 
and  those  who  are  interested  in  such  studies  will  there  find  a 
good  variety  of  them.    Here,  however,  we  can  only  include 


238  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

a  Specimen  or  two  of  each  class  of  folk-tale,  but  probably  these 
will  indicate  sufficiently  clearly  the  character  of  the  whole. 

The  most  favourite,  as  well  as  the  longest  Malagasy  folk-tale, 
is  that  of  Bonia,  or,  as  the  name  is  given  in  some  variants  of  the 
story,  Andrian-ari-saina-bonia-maso-bonia-man6ro(!)  Of  this 
tale  Mr.  Richardson  says  :  "  It  could,  with  a  little  '  padding ' 
and  the  additions  contained  in  our  various  renderings,  be 
lengthened  out  into  a  good-sized  three-volume  novel,  so  many 
are  the  incidents  and  dramatis  personce  ;  while  the  most  concise 
form  of  it  (18  pp.)  is  that  published  in  the  first  number  of  the 
[Malagasy]  Folk-lore  Society's  Publications,  and  obtained  by 
the  writer  [Mr.  R.]  from  a  teacher  in  the  London  Missionary 
Society's  Normal  School.  Its  length  and  wealth  of  incident 
certainly  establish  its  claim  for  a  first  place  in  all  notices  of  the 
Malagasy  tales."  Several  of  the  following  stories  are  translated 
from  Folk-lore  and  Folk-tales  of  Madagascar. 

The  Crocodile  and  the  Dog. 

Once  upon  a  time  a  crocodile  and  a  dog  chanced  to  meet 
suddenly  on  the  road.  Then  said  the  crocodile,  "  Where  are 
you  from,  my  younger  brother  ?  "  "  Just  hereabouts,  my  elder 
brother,"  said  the  dog.  Upon  that  the  dog  also  asked  the 
crocodile,  "Where  are  you  from,  elder  brother?"  "I've  just 
come  from  such  a  place,  younger  brother,"  said  he. 

And  said  the  dog,  "  What  do  you  think  about  my  proposal  ? 
do  you  agree  or  not  ? "  "  What  proposal  is  that,  younger 
brother  ? "  "  Let  us  strike  up  a  friendship  together,"  said  the 
dog.  "  Yes,  all  right,"  said  the  crocodile  ;  "  if  a  little  fellow  like 
you  knows  what  is  right,  much  more  a  senior  like  myself  Come 
along  then,  young  friend."  "  Agreed,"  said  the  dog.  So  the 
two  struck  up  a  firm  friendship,  and  went  on  talking  thus : 
"  Whoever  proves  false,"  said  the  crocodile,  "  shall  be  scouted." 
"  Agreed,"  said  the  dog. 

Some  little  time  afterwards  the  crocodile  said,  "  Come,  let 
me  give  you  a  meal,  young  friend."    So  he  supplied  the  dog 


MALAGASY  FOLK-TALES  AND  FABLES.  239 

with  food,  and  when  he  had  eaten  his  fill,  the  dog  said,  "  Come, 
carry  me  over,  old  friend."  So  the  crocodile  carried  him  ;  but 
half-way  across,  he  stopped  and  sank  down  into  the  water. 
Upon  that  the  dog  struggled  a  little,  but  presently  got  across  ; 
and  as  soon  as  he  landed  the  crocodile  emerged  from  the 
water.  So  the  dog  said,  "  You've  broken  the  agreement,  old 
fellow."  "  Why,  wasn't  I  there  below  you  all  the  same  ?  For 
I  want  you  to  be  able  to  swim."  Nevertheless  if  the  dog  had 
not  been  able  to  swim,  he  would  have  been  drowned. 

Then  said  the  dog  in  his  turn,  "  Come  now,  old  fellow,  do  you 
go  yonder  with  me  to-morrow."  "  But  where  is  the  place  of 
meeting,  young  friend  ?  "  "  Yonder,  at  such-a-place,"  said  the 
dog.  Agreed,"  replied  the  crocodile.  On  the  morrow  accord- 
ingly the  dog  took  him  some  distance  towards  ground  covered 
with  the  trailing  tendrils  of  gourds.  But  it  was  to  pay  him  out 
for  what  he  had  done.  So  the  dog  said,  "  I  will  give  you  a 
signal,  old  fellow  ;  when  I  bark,  then  run  off,  for  people  are 
coming."  The  crocodile,  be  it  said,  had  brought  his  wife  and 
family  with  him.  And  when  they  all  arrived  the  dog  set  food 
before  them,  but  before  the  meal  was  half-way  through  he  began 
to  bark.  So  off  they  all  ran,  but  some  of  the  young  ones  were 
entangled  in  the  trailing  tendrils  of  the  gourds  and  killed. 

So  when  they  got  to  the  water,  the  crocodile  said,  What 
kind  of  a  dog  are  you  ?  What's  the  meaning  of  this,  fellow  ?  " 
"  There's  no  retribution,  but  the  past  returns,"  ^  said  the  dog. 
The  crocodile  rejoined,  "  If  my  descendants  and  heirs  do  not 
destroy  dogs  from  henceforth,  then  let  me  have  no  heirs  to 
inherit !  "  And  this  was  the  origin  of  the  enmity  between  dogs 
and  crocodiles. 

The  Three  Sisters  and  Itrhnobe. 

There  was  once  a  certain  couple  who  were  very  rich,  and  they 
had  three  children,  all  daughters.  And  of  these  children  of 
theirs,  the  youngest,  Ifaravavy  ("  last  female  "),  was  the  prettiest. 

^  A  native  proverb  :  "Aj  tody  tsy  inisy,fa  iiy  atao  niivcrina" 


240  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

One  day  Ifara  had  a  dream,  and  told  it  to  her  sisters  ;  said 
she,  "  I  have  had  a  dream,  lasses,  and  I  dreamt  that  the  son  ol 
the  sun  came  from  heaven  to  take  a  wife  from  among  us,  and  i1 
was  I  whom  he  took,  for  you  two  he  left  behind." 

Then  the  two  sisters  were  very  angry  about  it,  and  said,  "  II 
is  true  enough  that  she  is  prettier  than  we  are,  and  if  a  prince  oi 
noble  should  seek  a  wife,  he  would  choose  her,  and  not  care  foi 
us  ;  so  let  us  consider  what  to  do.  Come,  let  us  take  her  oul 
to  play,  and  find  out  from  people  which  of  us  they  consider  the 
best  looking."  So  they  called  Ifara,  and  said,  "Come,  Ifara,  lei 
us  go  and  play." 

So  they  went  away  all  dressed  in  their  best,  and  soon  met 
an  old  woman.  "  Granny,"  said  they,  "  which  of  us  three  sisters 
is  the  prettiest  ?  "  "  Ramatoa  (the  eldest)  is  good  looking,  Raivc 
(the  middle  one)  is  good  looking,  but  Ifara  is  better  looking  than 
either."  "  Oh,  dear,"  said  they,  "  there's  no  doubt  Ifara  is  prettiei 
than  we  are."  So  they  took  off  Ifara  s  lamba  (the  outer  native 
dress,  a  large  oblong  piece  of  cloth). 

Presently  they  met  an  old  man.  "  Grandfather,"  they  said 
"  who  is  the  prettiest  of  us  three  sisters  ?  "  "  Ramatoa  is  good 
looking,  Raivo  is  good  looking,  but  Ifara  is  better  looking  than 
either."  "  Dear  me  !  although  deprived  of  her  lamba,  she  is  still 
prettier  than  we  are."  So  they  stripped  her  of  her  underclothing, 

Then  they  met  with  Itrimobe.  (This  was  an  immense 
monster,  half  human  and  half  beast,  a  man-eating  creature,  and 
with  a  frightfully  sharp  tail.)  "  Oh,  dear,  if  here  isn't  Itrimobe  ! 
"Who  is  the  prettiest  of  us  three  sisters?  "  But  with  a  snarl  he 
answered  just  as  the  old  woman  and  old  man  had  answered. 

So  the  sisters  were  beside  themselves  with  anger  because 
Ifara  was  prettier  than  they  were,  and  they  said,  "If  we  were  to 
kill  Ifara,  perhaps  father  and  mother  would  hear  of  it  and  kill 
us,  so  let  us  go  and  get  some  of  Itrimobe's  vegetables,  so  that 
he  may  eat  her."  So  the  sisters  said  to  her,  "  Come,  Ifara,  let 
us  see  who  can  find  the  nicest  vegetables."  "  Come  along  then," 
she  said,  "  let  us  take  some  of  those  yonder  "  (meaning  those  of 


MALAGASY  FOLK-TALES  AND  FABLES.  24 1 

Itrlmob^).  "Shall  we  get  the  ripe  or  the  young  ones?"  said 
Ifara.  "  Get  those  just  sprouting,"  said  they.  Then  they  went 
to  get  them,  but  the  two  sisters  took  the  full-grown  ones*  So 
when  the  three  showed  theirs  to  each  other  Ifara's  were  the 
worst.  "  Oh,  dear  !  "  cried  she,  "  why  yours  are  the  full-grown, 
you've  cheated  me."  "  It's  yourself,  girl,  who  would  take  the 
unripe,"  said  the  two ;  "  go  along  and  fetch  some  full-grown 
ones." 

So  Ifara  went  off  to  get  them  ;  but  while  she  was  gathering 
them  she  was  caught  by  Itrimobe.  "  I've  got  you,  my  lass," 
said  he,  "  for  you  are  taking  my  vegetables  ;  I'll  eat  you,  my 
lass."  Then  Ifara  cried,  "  I  am  sorry,  Itrimobe,  but  take  me  for 
your  wife."  "  Come  along,  then,"  said  he  (but  it  was  that  he 
might  take  her  home  to  be  fattened,  and  after  that  eat  her). 

The  sisters  were  exceedingly  glad  at  this,  and  went  away  to 
tell  their  father  and  mother,  saying,  "  Ifara  stole  Itrimobe's  vege- 
tables, so  he  has  eaten  her."  Then  the  old  people  wept  profusely 
for  sorrow.  So  Itrimobe  fed  up  Ifara  at  his  house,  and  would 
not  let  her  go  out  of  doors,  but  covered  her  with  mats,  while  he 
went  into  the  country  hunting  things  to  fatten  her,  so  that  Ifara 
became  very  fat,  and  the  time  approached  for  Itrimobe  to  devour 
her. 

But  one  day,  when  Itrimobe  happened  to  have  gone  abroad 
hunting,  a  little  mouse  wearing  plantain  fibre  cloth  jumped  by 
Ifara's  side  and  said,  "Give  me  a  little  white  rice,  Ifara,  and  I'll 
give  you  advice."  "  What  advice  can  you  give  me  ?  "  said  Ifara. 
"Well,  then,  let  Itrimobe  devour  you  to-morrow."  "But  what 
is  the  advice  you  can  give  me  ?  "  said  Ifara,  "  for  I'll  give  you 
the  rice."  So  she  gave  some  white  rice  to  the  little  mouse 
clothed  in  cloth  of  plantain  fibre ;  and  it  said  to  her,  "  Be  off 
with  you,  and  take  an  egg,  a  broom,  a  small  cane,  and  a  smooth 
round  stone,  and  escape  southwards." 

So  Ifara  took  the  things  and  set  off ;  but  she  put  a  plantain- 
tree  stem  instead  of  herself  in  her  bed,  and  locked  up  the  house. 
Presently  Itrimobe  came  home  from  the  fields  bringing,  with 

17 


242  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

him  a  spear  for  killing  Ifara,  and  a  cooking-pot  ;  so  he  knocked 
at  the  door,  but  no  one  opened.  Said  he,  "  Dear  me,  Ifara's  got 
so  fat  she  can't  move."  So  he  broke  open  the  door,  and  coming 
up  to  the  bed  thrust  his  spear  through  the  mat,  so  that  it  stuck 
fast  in  the  plantain-tree  stem.  Then  he  said,  "  Oh  dear,  Ifara's 
so  fat  the  spear  sticks  fast  into  her."  So  he  stuck  it  in  again 
and  licked  the  spear.  "  Why,"  said  he,  "  Ifara  must  be  fat,  for 
her  blood  has  no  taste  !  "  But  when  he  had  opened  the  mat  to 
take  her  for  cooking,  lo  and  behold,  the  plantain-tree  stem  ! 
"  Oho  !  the  worthless  wench  has  run  off!  "  said  he. 

Then  he  snuffed  the  air  to  the  east,  but  there  was  nothing 
there  ;  he  snuffed  to  the  north,  nothing  there  ;  he  snuffed  to  the 
west,  nothing  there;  he  snuffed  to  the  south,  "Ah,  there  she  is ! " 
Off  he  sets,  runs  after  her  with  all  speed,  and  at  last  overtakes 
her  ;  "  I've  got  you,  Ifara  !  "  So  Ifara  threw  down  her  broom, 
saying,  "  By  my  sacred  father  and  mother,  let  this  become  a 
dense  thicket  which  Itrimobe  cannot  pass  through."  Then  a 
very  dense  thicket  grew  up.  But  Itrimobe  took  his  tail  and  cut 
away  perseveringly  at  the  thicket  until  it  was  all  cleared  off. 
"  I've  got  you  now,  Ifara  !  " 

Then  Ifara  put  down  her  egg,  saying,  "  By  my  sacred  father 
and  mother,  let  this  egg  become  a  great  pool  of  water."  Then 
a  great  pool  appeared.  But  Itrimobe  began  to  drink  up  the 
water  and  kept  pouring  it  into  the  river.  At  last  the  water  was 
dried  up.    "  I've  got  you  now,  Ifara  !  " 

Then  Ifara  put  down  her  small  cane,  saying,  "  By  my  sacred 
father  and  mother,  let  this  cane  become  a  dense  forest."  Then 
a  dense  impassable  forest  grew  up.  But  Itrimobe  with  his  tail 
hewed  down  the  forest,  and  kept  at  \vork  until  the  whole  was 
felled.    "  I've  got  you  now,  Ifara  !  " 

Then  Ifara  put  down  her  smooth  round  stone,  and  said,  "  By 
my  sacred  father  and  mother,  let  this  become  an  inaccessible 
precipice  which  Itrimobe  cannot  climb.  So  it  became  an 
immense  precipice.  Then  Itrimobe  cut  away  with  his  tail 
incessantly,  but  at  last  his  tail  became  so  blunt  he  could  do 


MALAGASY  FOLK-TALf:S  AND  FABLES.  243 

nothing  more.  He  attempted  to  climb,  but  was  unable.  Then 
he  called  out,  "  Pull  me  up,  Ifara,  for  I  won't  harm  you."  But 
Ifara  replied,  "  I  won't  take  hold  of  you  until  you  have  stuck 
your  spear  in  the  ground."  So  Itrimobe  stuck  the  spear  in  the 
ground,  and  Ifara  threw  him  a  rope,  which  he  laid  hold  of.  But 
when  he  was  nearly  up  he  said,  I've  got  you,  Ifara,  my  lass  !  " 
Then  Ifara  let  him  fall,  and  he  was  impaled  on  his  spear  and 
was  killed.^ 

So  Ifara  was  there  upon  the  rock  ;  and  she  wept  and  was 
sad  at  heart  for  her  father  and  mother.  Then  came  a  crow, 
and  when  Ifara  saw  it  she  sang  to  it  as  follows  : 

"  O  yonder  crow,  O  yonder  crow  ! 
Take  me  to  father's  well, 
And  I  will  smooth  thy  tail  !  " 

"  And  you  say  I  eat  unripe  earth-nuts,  and  am  I  going  to 
carry  you  there  ?    Stay  where  you  are,"  said  the  crow. 
Then  came  a  hawk,  to  whom  she  said  : 

"  O  yonder  hawk,  O  yonder  hawk  ! 
Take  me  to  father's  well, 
And  I  will  smootii  thy  tail  ! " 

"  And  you  say  I  am  the  eater  of  dead  rats,  and  am  I  going 
to  carry  you  there  ?  " 

After  that  a  "  Reo  "  bird  (yLeptosomiis  discolor')  came,  repeat- 
ing its  cry,  "  Reo,  reo,  reo,"  which,  when  Ifara  saw,  she  called  to 
thus  : 

"  O  yonder  Rco^  O  yonder  Reo  ! 
Take  me  to  father's  well, 
And  I  will  smooth  thy  tail  !  " 

"  Reo,  reo,  reo,"  said  the  bird,  "  come,  let  me  carry  you,  my 
lass,  for  I  feel  for  the  sorrowful."  So  the  bird  took  her  away 
and  placed  her  on  a  tree  just  above  the  well  of  her  father  and 
mother. 

Soon  there  came  a  little  slave  girl  of  theirs  to  draw  water  ; 

^  Malagasy  spears  have  a  small  blade  at  the  foot,  by  which  they  are  stuck  in 
the  ground  when  encamping,  &c.,  so  that  the  large  blade  stands  upright. 


244  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

she  washed  her  face,  and  seeing  a  reflection  in  the  water,  cried 
out,  "  My  word  !  to  have  a  pretty  face  Hke  mine,  and  yet  carry 
a  waterpot  on  my  head !  "  But  it  was  the  reflection  of  Ifara's 
face  she  saw  in  the  water  and  took  it  for  her  own.  So  she  broke 
the  waterpot  in  pieces.  Then  Ifara  called  out  from  the  tree, 
"  Father  and  mother  are  at  expense  to  buy  waterpots,  and  you 
break  them  !  "  So  the  slave-girl,  whose  name  was  Itretrikandevo, 
looked  all  about  her  and  said,  "  Wherever  was  that  person 
speaking  ?  "    So  she  went  off  home. 

On  the  morrow  she  came  again  to  fetch  water,  and  washing 
her  face  again,  saw  a  reflection  in  the  water,  and  breaking  the 
waterpot  said,  "  A  handsome  face  like  mine,  indeed,  and  have 
to  carry  water  on  my  head  !  "  But  it  was  Ifara's  face  she  saw 
there.  And  again  Ifara  spoke  from  up  the  tree,  "Father  spends 
money  buying,  and  you  break."  And  again  Itretrikandevo 
looked  about  her,  saying,  "  Whoever  was  that  speaking  ?  " 

So  she  ran  off  to  the  village,  saying  to  her  master  and 
mistress,  "  There  was  somebody  speaking  yonder  at  the  well, 
but  I  could  not  see  who  it  was,  yet  the  voice  was  like  Ifara's  !" 
So  the  pair  went  off  to  see,  and  when  they  got  there  Ifara  came 
down,  and  all  three  wept  for  joy.  Then  Ifara  told  them  how 
her  sisters  had  deceived  her  so  that  she  might  be  seized  by 
Itrimobe.  So  they  disowned  the  two  daughters  and  kept  Ifara 
as  their  child. 

The  Dispute  for  Seniority  among  the  Members  of  the  Body. 

Once  upon  a  time,  it  is  said,  the  Ear,  the  Eye,  the  Mouth, 
the  Hand,  the  Foot,  and  the  Belly  disputed  together  about 
seniority,  and  in  this  manner  went  the  dispute  : — 

Said  the  Ear,  "  I  am  the  eldest  of  all,  because  it  is  I  whc 
hear  all  things  whatsoever." 

And  when  the  Eye  heard  that,  he  answered,  "It  isn't  you 
who  are  the  eldest,  but  I  ;  for  although  you.  Ear,  may  even  hear 
if  it  wasn't  for  me,  the  Eye,  seeing,  then  you  would  see  nothing 
of  the  way  you  ought  to  tread." 


MALAGASY  FOLK-TALES  AND  FABLES. 


And  when  the  Mouth  heard  that,  he  was  angry,  and  said, 
"  You  fellows  here  are  talking  nonsense,  and  disputing  as  to  who 
shall  be  the  head  ;  while  neither  of  you  is  the  eldest,  but  it  is 
I  myself ;  for  although  you.  Ear,  may  hear,  and  you.  Eye,  even 
may  see,  if  it  was  not  for  me,  Mouth,  speaking,  you  would 
remain  silent  as  stone  or  wood." 

And  when  the  Hand  heard  that  he  was  startled,  and  said, 
Why,  you  ought  to  be  ashamed  of  yourselves  for  talking  such 
rubbish,  and  each  of  you  saying,  '  It  is  I  who  am  eldest.'  Why 
don't  you  think  a  little  before  you  speak  ?  For  although  you 
all  may  be  here,  ear  and  eye  and  mouth,  if  it  wasn't  for  me,  the 
hand,  which  takes  hold  and  works,  what  could  you  all  accom- 
plish? So  let  every  one  be  still,  for  there  is  no  one  of  you 
eldest,  for  I,  the  hand,  alone  am  the  eldest." 

And  when  the  Foot  heard  that,  he  burst  out  laughing,  and 
said,  What  a  set  of  fools  !  just  look  at  the  shadow  first  before 
you  peer  into  the  glass.  People  like  you,  indeed,  quarrelling 
about  seniority  !  For  what  are  you  but  maize  hung  up,  so  that 
although  you,  Eye,  may  see,  and  although  you,  Mouth,  may 
speak,  and  although  you.  Hand,  may  take  hold,  if  it  wasn't  for 
me,  the  foot,  to  go  and  carry  you,  what  would  you  be  better 
than  the  bottom  of  the  basket,  to  sit  still  without  any  other 
business  than  to  be  friends  with  the  ashes  ?  ^  Don't  dispute  any 
more  about  seniority,  for  none  of  you  is  worthy  to  be  senior. 
For  it  is  I,  the  foot,  only  who  am  senior." 

And  the  Belly,  when  he  heard  all  that,  said,  "  How  is  it 
these  fellows  have  a  mouth  that  is  never  tired,  and  lips  above 
and  below,  and  are  not  torn  to  pieces  like  a  rag  ? 

"  This  Ear,  forsooth,  making  himself  to  be  senior  !  The  dog 
has  ears  just  as  much  as  you,  and  hears  the  abuse  and  evil  words 
spoken  by  others  ;  but  its  belly  does  not  know  rest,  and  is  happy 
to  bear  the  abuse  of  others. 

"  And  you,  Eye,  making  yourself  to  be  senior !  Every 
living  thing  sees  the  darkness  and  the  light  ;  but  the  belly 

^  Alluding  to  the  ashes  carried  in  baskets  as  manure  for  the  rice-fields. 


246  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

does  not  observe,  for  the  eye  looks  upon  the  good  and  the 
evil. 

"  And  you,  Mouth,  also,  making  yourself  to  be  senior  !  The 
pig,  too,  has  a  mouth  the  same  as  you,  but  its  belly  is  happy  in 
doing  evil,  and  devours  that  which  it  had  vomited. 

"  And  you.  Hand,  also  making  yourself  to  be  senior  !  The 
crab  has  hands  just  as  much  as  you,  but  its  belly  has  no  thought, 
so  its  hands  can  do  nothing  of  themselves,  either  separately  or 
altogether. 

"  And  as  for  you,  Foot,  making  yourself  to  be  senior  !  You 
see  that  the  ox  has  feet  just  as  much  as  you,  but  its  belly  is 
foolish,  and  so  it  is  made  a  treader  of  rice-fields  and  a  breaker 
up  of  clods.i  So  this  is  what  I  declare  to  you  :  Don't  dispute 
any  more  about  seniority,  for  it  is  I  alone  who  am  the  eldest, 
because  it  is  I,  the  belly,  who  am  thinker  and  observer,  and 
receptacle  for  the  food  which  is  to  strengthen  you  all." 

So  they  all  humbled  themselves  to  be  juniors,  and  the  belly 
only  was  agreed  to  as  the  eldest  ;  and  they  gathered  together 
there  all  the  emotions  expressed  in  such  phrases  as  "  My  heart 
is  troubled,"  "  My  liver  is  troubled,"  "  My  bowels  are  troubled," 
"  My  belly  is  troubled,"  &c. 

The  meaning  of  this  amusing  fable  will  be  clearer  if  it  is 
remembered  that  the  Malagasy  use  the  word  for  belly  {kibd)  in 
a  very  wide  sense,  as  including  heart,  bowels,  liver,  womb, 
stomach,  &c.  ;  and  that  in  these  organs  they  (like  Orientals 
generally)  place  the  seat  of  the  emotions  and  feelings,  and  the 
intelligence  also.  The  similarity  of  the  main  idea  of  the  fable 
to  that  of  /Esop's  "  The  Belly  and  the  Members,"  is  obvious,  an 
idea  which  is  probably  found  in  almost  every  nation,  as  is  also 
seen  in  its  very  full  use  as  an  illustration  by  St.  Paul  in  I  Cor. 
xii.  12-25.  It  will  be  noticed  that  seniority  is  equivalent  among 
the  Malagasy  to  headship  or  lordship. 

'  Oxen  are  driven  about  on  the  soft  mud  of  the  rice-fields,  over  which  water 
has  been  allowed  to  flow,  after  they  have  been  dug  up  by  the  spade. 


MALAGASY  FOLK-TALES  AND  FABLES.  247 

The  Little  Bird  a?id  he  who  ate  it. 

Once  upon  a  time  there  was  a  young  bird  of  the  species 
called  antsdly,  and  it  was  stoned  by  a  certain  man  ;  so  the  bird 
cried  out  thus  : — 

"  Throws  stones  indeed,  does  this  man,  O, 
Throws  stones  at  the  little  autsaly,  O  ! 
Throws  stones  O  !  " 

So  the  man  still  went  on  throwing  ;  and,  the  bird's  foot  being 
struck,  it  fell  to  the  ground  and  was  caught  by  the  man.  And 
when  he  had  got  it,  it  began  to  sing  thus : 

"  Obtained  indeed  has  this  man,  O, 
Obtained  the  little  autsaly,  O  ! 
Obtained  O  ! " 

Then  the  man  took  the  bird  home.  And  when  he  had  come  to 
his  wife  the  bird  spake  again  thus  : 

"  Obtained  indeed  has  this  man,  O, 
Obtained  the  little  autsaly,  O  ! 
Obtained  O  !  " 

So  the  man's  wife  was  astonished,  and  said,  "  Dear  me,  why  this 
bird  speaks !  Whatever  you  may  think,  it's  an  unlucky  busi- 
ness ;  for  I  never  in  all  my  life  saw  such  a  thing  as  this."  But 
the  man  said,  "If  you  won't  eat  it,  I'll  eat  it  by  myself."  So  he 
killed  the  bird  and  cut  it  up,  and  said  to  his  child,  "  Take  hold, 
child,  for  it  bothers  me."  But  the  mother  interposed,  saying, 
"  If  you're  my  child  don't  you  take  hold  of  it,  for  it's  unlucky." 
So  the  child  would  not  take  hold,  for  it  was  afraid  of  its  mother. 
Then  the  bird  called  out  again  : — 

"  Will  cut  up  indeed,  will  this  man. 
Will  cut  up  the  little  autsaly  ! 
Will  cut  up  !  ■■ 

Then  the  wife  said  again,  "  Dear  me,  are  you  really  bold  enough 
to  do  that  ?    A  bird  speaking  !  and  you  dare  cook  it  ?  "  But 


248  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

the  man  did  not  answer  and  went  on  by  himself,  and  presently 
really  began  to  cut.    So  the  bird  called  out  again  : 

"  Is  cooking  indeed,  is  this  man, 
Is  cooking  the  little  autsaly! 
Is  cooking ! " 

And  after  a  little  while  the  bird  was  cooked  and  the  man  ate  ; 
but  the  people  in  the  house  would  not  eat,  for  they  were  afraid. 
Then  the  bird  called  out  again  : 

'*  Is  eating  indeed,  is  this  man, 
Is  eating  the  httle  antsaly  ! 
Is  eating  !  " 

And  after  the  man  had  eaten  he  sat  down  north  of  the  hearth,^ 
and  his  wife  sat  south  of  it,  and  the  children  east  of  it.  And 
after  a  little  time  the  man's  stomach  began  to  swell,  and  the 
bird  also  called  out  again  in  his  stomach  thus  : 

"  Is  full  indeed,  is  this  man. 
Is  full  of  the  little  antsaly  ! 
Is  full  ! " 

Then  his  wife  spoke  again  to  him,  "  Now  you  see  what  you've 
got !  for  you  were  admonished  and  wouldn't  take  warning." 
But  the  man  could  not  answer,  but  wept,  and  his  tears  flowed 
apace.  And  then,  wonderful  to  relate,  the  bird's  parents  out  in 
the  field  called  out : 

"  Gone  where  is  the  little  antsaly  f 
Gone  where  is  the  little  antsaly  f 
Gone  where  ? " 

And  their  child  there  in  the  man's  stomach  answered  thus  : 

"  Here  indeed  I  am,  father. 
Here  indeed  I  am,  mother. 
Here  ! " 


'  Hova  houses  are  always  built  north  and  south,  and  north  of  the  hearth, 
which  is  an  open  fireplace  of  earth  and  stones,  is  the  place  of  honour  in  the 
house. 


MALAGASY  FOLK-TALES  AND  FABLES.  249 

So  the  parent  birds  heard  it  and  came  near  ;  and  coming  west 
of  the  compound  called  out  thus  : 

"  Gone  where  is  the  HUle  aiifsaly  f 
Gone  where  is  the  httle  autsaly  f 
Gone  where  ?  " 

So  the  bird  answered  again  : 

"  Here  indeed  I  am,  father, 
Here  indeed  I  am,  mother. 
Here  !  " 

And  when  the  pair  heard  that,  they  came  into  the  house  and  also 
said,  "  Was  it  you  (pi.)  who  ate  our  child  ?  "  Then  the  children 
in  the  house  answered,  "It  was  daddy  who  ate  it."  So  the 
birds  spoke  again,  "  Why  was  it  that  thou  atest  our  child  ?  " 
But  the  man  answered  nothing,  but  wept  profusely.  Then  the 
birds  tore  up  the  man's  belly  with  their  claws  and  got  their 
child  ;  and  then  the  three  went  home  into  the  woods,  but  the 
man  who  would  not  be  warned  by  wife  and  children  died. 

Rapeto. 

The  stories  which  people  relate  of  this  Rapeto  are  exceed- 
ingly puzzling  ;  still,  we  may  safely  say  that  they  are  fabulous. 

The  town  where  he  lived,  they  say,  is  Ambohidrapeto,  west 
of  Antananarivo.^    And  the  fables  related  of  him  are  these — 

1.  They  say  he  was  so  tall  as  to  touch  the  skies.  And 
although  it  was  at  Ambohidrapeto  that  he  ate  rice,  the  rice  he 
cooked  would  be  in  the  forest  to  the  east  [that  is,  twenty  miles 
away]. 

2.  They  say  he  went  to  amuse  himself  at  Ambohitrarahaba,^ 
and  it  was  only  one  step  from  there  to  Ambohidrapeto.  [The 
places  are  about  six  miles  apart] 

3.  Those  rocks,  with  hollows  like  human  feet  in  them,  on  the 

'  Ambohidrapeto,  that  is,  "  Town-of-Rapeto,"  is  a  small  town  on  a  low  hill 
about  three  miles  west  of  the  capital. 

^  This  is  a  large  village  about  three  miles  north  of  the  capital. 


250  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

roadside  near  Ambohitrarahaba  are,  they  say,  the  impressions 
of  his  legs  and  feet  and  knees,  by  which  he  showed  his  strength.^ 
4.  They  say  he  fetched  the  moon  as  a  plaything  for  his 
children  ;  but  he  was  struck  by  a  meteorolite,  and  so  was  killed. 

The  Lost  Son  of  God  {a  Natiire-inytK). 
(This  piece  was  obtained  from  Fisakana.) 

The  following  is  a  fable  related  by  the  people  of  old  times 
when  they  met  together  and  talked  : — 

The  son  of  God,  they  say,  came  down  here  upon  earth,  and 
Rakoriaho  and  Ravao  were  his  nurses.  And  this  son  of  God, 
'tis  said,  was  lost,  and  neither  he  or  his  nurses  could  be  found. 
And  all  things  of  whatever  kind  sought  for  him  ;  whether  the 
stones  which  were  below  the  earth,  or  the  trees  which  covered 
the  earth,  or  the  people  which  dwelt  upon  the  earth,  or  the  water 
or  the  beasts.  So  that  everything,  whether  living  creatures  or 
things  without  life,  sought  him  diligently,  for  the  son  of  God 
was  lost.  Still,  among  them  all  not  one  found  him.  And  so 
they  sent  to  inquire  of  God.  And  when  the  messengers  arrived 
God  said,  "  Let  everything  stay  in  the  place  where  it  went."  So 
the  stones  went  seeking  below  the  earth  ;  and  as  for  the  trees, 
the  half  part  stuck  fast  in  the  ground,  and  so  became  fixed  there 
by  the  word  of  God,  "  Stand  still "  ;  and  that,  they  say,  caused 
some  stones  to  be  below  the  earth  ;  and  the  trees  to  have  their 
roots  in  the  ground,  and  their  branches  standing  above,  so  that 
if  the  roots  and  the  branches  separate  they  die.  And  the  people 
also  spread  abroad,  seeking  northward  and  westward  and  south- 
ward, and  lastly  eastwards.  (That,  they  say,  is  why  prayer  is 
made  towards  the  east.^)  And  that  is  why  people  are  spread 
abroad  in  various  countries. 

^  There  are  certain  rocks  with  some  curious  hollows  in  them  in  the  place 
described.  They  have  probably  been  produced  by  rain-water  and  the  unequal 
hardness  of  portions  of  the  surface. 

=  The  sacred  portion  of  a  Hova  house  is  the  north-east  corner,  the  zovo- 
firarazana,  or  "  corner  of  invocation  "  (from  the  root  rary,  a  chant). 


MALAGASY  FOLK-TALES  AND  FAHLES. 


251 


And  God  said  also,  "  Let  not  your  mouths  cease  to  utter  the 
word  '  Rakoriaho  ' "  (and  that  is  said  to  be  the  origin  of  the 
salutation  of  strangers,  Akoiy  hianao  ?) ;  and  its  meaning  is  as 
if  one  said,  "  Is  Rakoriaho  there?"  And  the  dog  is  the  pro- 
tector of  Ravao  ;  then  said  God,  "  Let  not  Ravao  be  absent  from 
your  mouth."  And  that  is  why  the  dogs  say  "  Vovo,"  ^  and  the 
meaning  of  that  is  as  if  they  said,  "  Is  Ravao  there  ?  " 

And  the  son  of  God  was  said  to  have  been  lost  in  the  water. 
So  God  said  to  the  waters,  "  Ye  are  not  allowed  to  rest  day  or 
night,  until  Rakoriaho  and  Ravao  are  found."  And  that,  they 
say,  is  what  keeps  the  waters  moving  day  and  night,  for  they  are 
still  seeking  Rakoriaho  and  Ravao,  who  were  the  nurses  of  the 
son  of  God 

T/ie  Cause  of  the  Separation  of  the  Five  FingersP- 

Each  of  the  fingers,  it  is  said,  had  their  own  thoughts,  and 
after  this  fashion  : — 

The  little  finger  said,  "  I  am  so  hungry." 

The  next  to  it  answered,  "  If  you're  hungry  go  and  steal, 
that  you  may  be  satisfied." 

Then  said  the  next  also,  "  Bring  plenty,  for  we  shall  want 
some." 

And  said  the  forefinger  (in  Malagasy  "  the  pointer," 
"  These  fellows  turn  their  back  on  (or  give  bad  advice)  to  the 
little  one  ;  if  one  steals  won't  he  be  punished  ?  " 

But  the  thumb  said,  "  I  do  not  understand  these  fellows* 
talk,  so  I'll  separate,  for  I'm  big,  since  you  are  plotting  mis- 
chief" 

And  that,  they  say,  was  the  reason  of  the  fingers  separating 
into  five,  and  the  thumb  opposing  the  rest.  And  the  two 
middle  fingers  have  no  special  name,3  because  they  had  bad 

^  An  onomatopoetic  word  in  the  Hova  language  for  barking. 

'  The  second  and  third  fingers  have  no  name  in  Malagasy,  while  the  thumb, 
forefinger,  and  little  finger  have  each  a  name  of  their  own. 

3  Literally,  the  five  "branches";  the  fingers,  including  the  thumb,  being 
called  riuitsaii-tiiiiaiui,  "branches  of  the  hand." 


252  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

thoughts,  and  they  have  no  particular  business  to  do,  and  no 
work  they  are  skilful  to  perform. 

The  Earth  proposing  to  fight  with  the  Skies. 

The  people  in  former  days,  it  is  said,  when  they  wanted  to 
pass  away  the  time  told  a  story  as  follows  : — "  Once  upon  a 
time  the  earth  rose  up  and  mounted  aloft  in  order  to  fight  the 
sky.  So  all  parts  of  the  earth  agreed  to  set  off  at  the  same 
time,  and  the  rocks,  they  say,  were  to  be  the  cannon  balls  to  fire 
at  the  sky.  And  early  morning  was  the  time  fixed  to  go  up. 
But  it  is  said  that  the  plains  and  the  valleys  crept  slowly  and 
sluggishly,  and  it  was  full  day  before  they  ate  their  breakfast, 
and  so  they  lagged  behind ;  and  that  is  the  reason  of  the 
inequality  of  the  valleys  and  the  plains  and  the  mountains,  for 
they  did  not  all  keep  step  together.  And  so  the  heavens  and 
the  earth  did  not  mingle,  because  all  the  earth  did  not  mount 
up  at  the  same  time. 

The  Birds  agreeing  to  make  a  King. 

Once  upon  a  time  all  the  birds  on  the  earth  agreed  together 
to  choose  one  who  should  be  their  king  and  leader,  but  the  Owl 
did  not  come,  because  it  happened  that  his  mate  was  sitting 
just  then.  So  all  the  birds  agreed  that  whoever  saw  the  Owl 
and  did  not  beat  him  should  also  be  an  outcast  and  be  treated 
as  an  enemy. 

For  this  reason  the  Owl  does  not  go  about  by  day,  but  goes 
by  night ;  for  if  any  birds  see  him  they  all  strive  together  to 
beat  him. 

And  the  big  Hawk  also  sought  to  be  king,  and  appointed 
himself,  but  the  others  did  not  agree  to  it,  so  he  went  away 
from  them  all  at  enmity  with  them.  And  whatever  bird  this 
Hawk  sees  he  swoops  down  upon,  because  he  is  their  enemy  ; 
and  the  rest  chose  one  who  should  be  their  king.  So  they 
chose  the  Railbvy  (a  Shrike,  Dicrurus  forficatus),  because  of  his 
good  position,  and  long  top-knot,  and  variety  of  note. 


MALAGASY  FOLK-TALES  AND  FABLES.  253 

And  that  is  said  to  be  why  people  consider  the  Railbvy  to  be 
king  of  the  birds. 

The  Sltry  and  the  Antsiantsy. 
(These  iire  two  small  species  of  Lizard.) 

These  creatures  are  both  small  animals,  yet  many  people 
pay  them  honour.  They  say  that  when  a  certain  person  called 
Rasoavolovoloina  has  a  child  born,  the  Sitry  went  off  to  visit 
her,  but  was  stoned  and  killed. 

Then  came  the  Antsiantsy,  and  was  also  stoned  by  Rasoa 
and  killed. 

And  when  Rasoa  went  out  to  feel  the  sun's  warmth,  then 
came  also  the  Takatra  ^  (the  tufted  umber)  and  the  Sltry  and 
the  Antsiantsy  went  to  the  door  of  Rasoa's  house. 

And  when  evening  came  on,  then  the  whole  of  the  animals 
came  and  mourned  at  the  door  and  devoured  the  child  of  Rasoa^ 
and  every  one  of  them,  it  is  said,  lamented.  And  on  account 
of  that,  Rasoavolovoloina  took  an  oath  (or  invoked  a  curse), 
saying:  "If  any  of  my  descendants  should  kill  a  Sltry  or  an 
Antsiantsy  they  must  wrap  up  its  corpse  in  silk."^ 

There  are  still  many  people  who  believe  this  story,  and  dare 
not  kill  either  of  the  lizards  ;  and  should  they  accidentally  kill 
them,  they  wrap  the  corpse  in  a  silk  cloth.  "  Those  who  kill 
them,"  say  some  folks,  "  will  die  young." 

TJie  Hawk  and  the  Hen. 

A  Hawk,  they  say,  had  a  son  born  to  her,  and  a  Hen  came 
to  nurse  her.  And  after  the  Hawk  had  been  nursed  a  week  she 
w^ent  to  take  exercise,  and  gave  her  son  to  the  Hen  to  nurse. 
But  when  it  was  broad  day  and  the  hawk  did  not  come,  the 
Hen  grew  angry  and  killed  the  young  one. 

So  when  the  Hawk  came  home  and  saw  its  young  one  dead, 

^  Many  native  superstitions  have  collected  about  the  bird.  Wdio.  A)iianauar\vo 
Aiuninl,  Vol.  IV.,  1891,  p.  295. 

^  Malagasy  corpses  are  wrapped  in  red  silk  lambas. 


254  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

it  was  enraged  and  beat  the  Hen,  but  the  Hen  held  its  ground, 
for  they  were  equal  in  strength. 

After  some  time,  not  seeing  what  to  do,  the  Hawk  invoked 
a  curse,  saying :  "  Whoever  would  be  my  true  offspring  must 
kill  the  young  of  this  Hen,  because  she  killed  my  young  one." 

And  that  is  said  to  be  the  reason  why  the  hawk  eats 
chickens,  but  not  hens. 

The  Vazhnba. 

The  Vazimba,  it  is  said,  lived  in  this  part  of  the  island  [that 
is,  in  Imerina,  the  central  province  of  Madagascar]  in  former 
times  ;  and  as  to  their  appearance  they  are  said  to  have  been 
small  people  with  little  heads  ;  and  it  is  reported  that  they  still 
exist  on  the  western  coast.    (See  Chap.  H.,  p.  26.) 

One  day  a  Vazimba  went  to  play  by  the  water  and  took 
the  animal  called  "  the  seven-headed  Fanany  "  (see  p.  231)  ;  and 
when  the  snake  called  Tbinpondrano  (that  is,  "  lord  of  the 
water ")  passed  by,  the  Vazimba  sent  him  with  this  message, 
Go,"  said  he,  "  speak  thus  to  father  and  mother,  '  This  is  the 
word  of  thy  son,  Ravazimba  :  I  have  gone  under  the  water  and 
send  you  my  farewells  ;  therefore  offer  the  blood  of  some  living 
creature,  and  its  feet,  and  hair  or  feathers,  and  the  fat,  for  if  you 
do  thus  you  shall  be  blessed.' "    So  the  snake  went,  they  say. 

This  is  the  reason  some  give  for  calling  certain  snakes 
Tbinpondrano.  They  believe  that  the  Vazimba  gave  them 
power,  and  hardly  any  one  will  kill  these  creatures  ;  and  should 
any  one  dare  kill  one  they  will  wrap  it  up  in  silk."  ^ 

And  some  time  after  that  the  Vazimba  sent  the  Kingfisher 
to  his  father  and  mother  with  this  message,  "  Salutation  to 
father  and  mother,  and  say  to  them  :  '  Thus  saith  Ravazimba, 
send  me  fowls  and  sheep.' "  And  when  the  Kingfisher  had 
thus  spoken  he  returned  to  Vazimba  again,  who  said  to  him, 
"  Because  you  were  diligent  and  wise  I  will  give  you  honour ; 

^  Following  the  same  custom  as  when  people  are  buried,  corpses  being 
wrapped  in  red  silk  lambas. 


MALAGASY  FOLK-TALES  AND  FABLES.  255 

I  will  put  a  crown  on  your  head,  and  clothe  you  with  purple 
by  day  and  night ;  when  you  lay  eggs  I  will  nurse  you  ;  and  if 
any  one  kills  you,  them  will  I  kill  while  young."  And  that  is 
why  the  Kingfisher  is  so  beautiful,  and  makes  its  hole  for  a  nest 
by  the  water.  Therefore  up  to  the  present  time  many  people 
dare  not  kill  or  eat  the  Kingfisher.  Many  believe  this,  and 
honour  the  little  bird  so  called. 

Here  in  Imerina  many  people  used  to  supplicate  of  the 
Vazimba  thus  :  "If  thou  wilt  prosper  me,"  or,  "  If  I  recover 
from  this  disease,"  or  "If  my  child,  or  my  wife  bears  a  child," 
&c.,  &c.,  "  then  I  will  anoint  thee  [meaning  the  ancient  graves 
called  Vazimba  graves]  with  fat  and  will  reverence  thee,  and 
then  I  will  sacrifice  sheep  and  fowls  in  thine  honour." 

The  Chameleon  and  the  Lizard. 

These  two  creatures,  it  is  said,  are  children  of  sisters  born  of 
one  mother,!  and  one  day  they  happened  to  be  sitting  together 
at  the  foot  of  a  tree.  The  Lizard  began  the  conversation  thus  : 
"  A  pleasant  thing  it  is  to  live,  good  friend."  The  Chameleon 
replied,  "  Living  is  pleasant  enough,  but  life  is  full  of  danger." 
The  Lizard  was  astonished  to  hear  that,  and  said,  "  You,  fellow, 
think  so  because  you're  so  thin  and  have  bulging  eyes."  The 
Chameleon  replied,  "  And  you,  fellow,  imagine  so  because 
you're  ugly  and  dirty-brown  coloured,  that's  why." 

And  thus  the  two  abused  one  another  until  Raolombelona 
(Mr.  Human-being)  came  up,  and  they  were  each  startled.  The 
Lizard  slunk  into  his  hole,  and  the  Chameleon  climbed  up  the 
tree,  and  it  is  said  they  were  never  friends  afterwards. 

The  Serpent  and  the  Frog. 

Once  upon  a  time  the  Serpent  called  Manditra  [a  species  of 
boa]  swallowed  a  Frog,  and  the  Frog  began  to  revile  the  Serpent 

*  Sisters'  children  are  considered  by  the  Malagasy  as  almost  the  same  as 
children  of  the  same  mother  ;  they  could  no  more  intermarry  than  can  brothers 
and  sisters,  while  the  marriage  of  brothers'  children  is  quite  common. 


256  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

thus :  "  What  a  speckled  appearance,  and  a  blunt  head,  and 
goggle  eyes  !  What's  become  of  your  feet  and  hands  ?  "  So 
the  Serpent  answered,  "  My  feet  are  worn  off  in  pursuing  you 
frogs  ;  and  my  eyes  stand  out  because  dim  with  looking  after 
you  ;  and  my  skin  is  speckled  because  I'm  full  of  your  precious 
father  ! " 

So  the  Frog  was  angry  and  cursed  the  Serpent ;  and  that 
is  why  it  is  hotly  pursued  by  the  serpents. 

The  Rice  and  the  Sugar-cane. 

The  Sugar-cane,  they  say,  came  to  the  Rice,  to  seek  friend- 
ship with  it,  and  spake  thus  to  it  :  "I  say,  O  Sir  Rice,  come, 
let  us  be  relatives  and  friends  together,  and  share  together  the 
difficult  and  the  bitter,  making  no  difference,  for  we  have  one 
origin,  for  each  is  the  produce  of  the  ground  ;  besides  that,  alike 
are  the  things  befalling  and  the  things  obtained  ;  equal  while 
living,  similar  in  death.  Why  look,  our  names  even  are  almost 
alike,  there's  but  a  slight  difference  between  vary  (rice)  and  fmy 
(sugar-cane) ;  so  let  us  strike  up  a  firm  friendship." 

The  Rice,  however,  it  is  said,  answered  thus :  "  Your  words 
are  true  enough  when  you  relate  and  particularise  our  origin, 
for  we  certainly  are  both  the  produce  of  the  ground,  equal  while 
living,  and  similar  in  death.  But  still,  here's  something  which 
prevents  us  agreeing,  so  it's  no  use,  for  it's  a  thing  we  can't 
agree  about  ;  so  let  there  not  be  that  friendship,  and  do  not  you 
blame  us.  For  it's  an  exceedingly  bad  thing  to  agree  without 
thought ;  for  those  who  go  along  with  fishermen,  they  say, 
stink  of  fish ;  those  who  make  friends  with  vagabonds  are 
themselves  vagrants  ;  and  those  who  make  friends  with  workers 
are  workers  themselves.  And  so  you  see,  my  good  fellow,  the 
reason  of  our  declining  friendship  with  you  is  your  changing  in 
the  end ;  and  that  is  why  we  can't  join  together.  For  you  see 
that  we  have  not  that  changing,  whatever  may  befall  us.  You 
see  that  we  are  damped  to  become  rotten,  and  when  we  have 
become  so,  we  are  soon  put  in  the  ground  ;  but  after  a  little 


MALAGASY  FOLK-TALES  AND  FABLES.  257 

time  we  are  still  rice  all  the  same.  And  when  we  have  become 
green  on  the  earth  again,  then  we  are  uprooted  and  stuck  in  the 
ground,  where  there  is  much  water ;  yet  we  do  not  change,  but 
still  remain  rice.  And  after  growing  again  until  we  are  ripe,  we 
are  then  reaped  with  the  knife ;  yet  we  do  not  change,  but  still 
remain  rice.  And  after  stopping  a  little  while  more,  we  are 
then  beaten  on  the  stone ;  yet  we  do  not  change,  but  still 
remain  rice.  And  not  only  so,  but  we  are  buried  in  the  rice 
pit ;  we  do  not  change,  but  still  remain  rice.  And  also,  we  are 
drawn  out  thence,  and  dried  in  the  sun  ;  and  when  dry  we  are 
pounded  in  the  mortar  and  our  skin  stripped  from  us,  yet  we  do 
not  change,  but  still  remain  rice.  And  not  only  so,  but  we  are 
put  into  the  cooking  pot  and  covered  with  water,  and  heated 
with  a  fierce  fire ;  and  unless  well  boiled  and  thoroughly  soft, 
we  are  not  removed  from  it.  And  when  removed  we  are 
chewed,  and  when  masticated  are  swallowed.  And  in  all  these 
calamities  which  overtake  and  befall  us  we  do  not  change,  but 
still  remain  rice.  And  the  land  where  we  are  not  found  is  called 
famine-stricken,  and  the  country  where  we  are  not  found  is 
called  desolate. 

"  But  as  for  you  sugar-canes,  on  the  other  hand,  you  are 
cut  down  and  chopped  up,  and  stuck  about  in  the  ground  ;  and 
then  you  do  not  change  at  all,  but  are  still  sugar-cane.  And 
after  you  have  grown  and  become  tall,  you  are  cut  down  with 
the  knife ;  and  still  you  do  not  change,  but  are  still  sugar-cane. 
And  afterwards  you  are  chewed  into  fibres  with  the  teeth  and 
crushed  in  the  mill,  but  yet  that  does  not  change  you,  for  you 
are  still  sugar-cane. 

"  But  that  is  not  all,  for  you  are  steeped  in  a  great  pot ;  and 
after  a  little  while  you  are  put  into  a  boiling  pot  and  heated 
intensely  by  the  fire  a  long  time,  and  after  you  thicken,  they 
stop.  And  upon  that  you  change,  and  take  another  name,  that 
is,  sugar. 

"  And  when  you  have  been  sent  back  to  the  boiler  again, 
then  you  no  longer  are  a  substance  in  a  lump  any  more,  but 

18 


258  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

become  steam  and  distilled  drops,  and  go  out  along  a  bamboo 
or  a  brass  pipe,  and  emerging  thence,  you  become  rum,  making 
wise  men  fools,  and  are  no  longer  sugar-cane.  So  that  we 
cannot  be  friends  with  you  sugar-cane,"  said  the  Rice. 

Ikotofetsy  and  Iinahakct.^ 

One  day,  it  is  said,  Ikotofetsy  and  Imahaka  displayed  an 
idol,  but  it  was  only  a  piece  of  manioc-root  which  they  had 
covered  with  scarlet  cloth.^  And  the  day  was  very  cloudy, 
and  just  as  if  heavy  rain  was  coming  on  ;  the  wind  also  blew 
very  hard.  So  they  called  the  people  together,^  and  bade  them 
assemble  in  an  open  space ;  and  then  they  brought  out  the  idol, 
but  it  did  not  move  3  (because  it  was  only  manioc-root).  So 
Ikotofetsy  and  Imahaka  said,  "  Since  we  brought  out  the  god,  and 
you  did  not  bring  tribute  to  him,  he  will  not  show  you  his 
glory,  and  is  angry ;  therefore  there  will  be  heavy  rains  to-day, 
and  the  waters  will  be  flooded."  (At  the  same  time  they  knew 
well  that  rain  would  fall  plentifully,  and  the  streams  be  all 
flooded.)  Accordingly,  the  rain  soon  fell  heavily  on  that  day, 
and  the  waters  were  indeed  all  flooded  ;  and  the  people  were  all 
exceedingly  astonished,  and  feared  greatly. 

Then  Ikotofetsy  and  Imahaka  procured  a  serpent  (called 
Manditrd),  and  wrapped  it  up  in  scarlet  cloth  as  they  had  done 
with  the  piece  of  manioc-root,  and  placed  it  in  a  basket.  And 
the  two  fellows  spoke  thus  to  the  people  :  "  This  is  the 
word  of  our  god  :  he  was  angry  yesterday,  but  we  besought 
him,  and  so  the  heavy  rain  ceased  ;  so  now  look,  for  he  will 

'  This  is  one  of  a  number  of  short  stories  which  are  very  popular  with  the 
Malagasy,  giving  the  adventures  and  various  tricks  of  two  clever  rogues.  The 
most  complete  collection  of  these  was  published  at  Antananarivo  some  years  ago. 
The  meaning  of  Ikotofetsy  is  the  "  cunning  lad  "  ;  that  of  Imahaka  is  not  quite 
so  clear,  it  perhaps  means  "  the  light-fingered  one,"  or  one  able  to  carry  off  by 
theft. 

^  Malagasy  idols  were  of  no  great  size,  and  were  usually  covered  with  red 
cloth. 

3  It  was  believed  that  the  idols  had  power  to  make  their  bearers  move  or  stop, 
according  to  the  will  of  the  idol. 


MALAGASY  FOLK-TALES  AND  FABLES.  259 

appear  to-day,  therefore  let  us  all  dance,  and  every  one  bring 
an  offering."  So  they  brought  the  serpent  in  the  basket,  and 
set  it  down  on  the  ground,  and  it  struggled  violently,  because  it 
was  a  living  creature.  So  the  people  were  all  confounded  and 
filled  with  fear,  and  every  one  danced  a  long  time.  Then  they 
each  paid  a  little  money  as  an  offering,  and  the  two  men,  it  is 
said,  collected  on  that  day  money  to  the  amount  of  ten  thousand 
pieces.  So  they  put  back  the  serpent  into  the  basket  again. 
And  then  they  said  to  the  people,  "  Should  any  of  you  be  ill, 
come  here  to  us,  and  bring  money  to  the  value  of  a  halfpenny 
and  twopence,  and  a  red  cock,  as  an  offering.  Besides  which, 
if  you  will  forget  the  god,  you  will  die  young." 

And  so,  it  is  said,  numbers  of  people  worshipped  that 
manioc-root,  and  the  two  men  became  very  rich.  And  after 
that  also  many  of  the  people  fetched  [what  they  supposed  to 
be]  pieces  of  the  idol,  but  it  was  only  pieces  of  wood  which 
Ikotofetsy  and  Imahaka  gave  them. 

Rasoalavavolo. 

Under  water,  it  is  said,  is  the  home  of  Rasoalavavolo,  and 
she  is  beautiful,  and  has  very  long  hair,  and  that  is  why  she  is 
called  Rasoalavavolo  {lava  volo  is  "  long-haired ").  Some  say 
she  is  a  Vazimba,i  but  others  say  that  she  belongs  to  one  of  the 
conquered  royal  families.  Both  stories,  however,  are  equally 
untrue,  since  the  whole  account  is  a  fiction. 

They  say,  nevertheless,  that  a  woman  named  Rasoavolovo- 
loina  went  to  visit  her,  and  to  ask  for  a  child,^  and  offered  two 
silver  rings,  and  had  given  to  her  two  round  smooth  stones, 
which,  they  say,  became  two  male  children.  When  the  two 
brothers  grew  up  they  went  to  visit  Rasoalavavolo  under  the 

^  One  of  the  supposed  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  central  provinces  of 
^Madagascar,  see  ante,  p.  26. 

-  This  is  what  native  women  very  often  do,  visiting  some  of  the  numerous 
sacred  stones  and  presenting  small  offerings,  in  the  hope  that  they  may  bear 
children. 


260  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

water,  and  offered  her  a  string  of  coral  beads,  but  she  happened 
to  be  asleep  when  the  brothers  came,  and  so  did  not  talk  with 
them  (lit,  "  blew  water  on  them  ")  and  they  were  the  ancestors 
of  all  the  people  who  have  lived  since  that  time  here  in 
Madagascar. 

And  there  are  still  many  who  believe  this  fable,  and  who 
come  to  the  story-tellers  to  beg  for  children,  but  it  is  only  a 
piece  of  fiction. 

The  Wild-hog  and  the  Rat. 

Once  upon  a  time,  'tis  said,  a  Wild-hog  and  a  Rat  chanced 
to  meet,  and  the  Rat  saluted  the  other,  saying,  "  How  do  you 
do,  say  I  ?  "  So  the  Wild-hog  replied,  "  Oh,  I'm  tolerably  well, 
but  how  are  you,  young  friend  ?  "  "  Oh,  I'm  very  well,"  said  the 
Rat,  saying  at  the  same  time,  "  Come,  my  elder  brother,  let  us 
have  a  game."  The  Wild-hog  replied,  "  Well,  all  right,  young 
friend  ;  but  what  sort  of  a  game  shall  we  have  ? "  "  Let  us 
collect  dry  grass,  and  when  we  have  got  plenty,  let  us  cover 
ourselves  with  it  and  set  it  on  fire.  Said  the  Wild-hog,  "  Oh, 
that's  a  good  idea,  but  perhaps  you  would  not  dare  do  it  ?  " 
"  Oh,  I'll  venture  it,  but  if  I  should  shirk  it,  I'll  never  eat  food 
again  ;  and  you  also,  if  you  daren't  venture  it,  then  you  must 
not  eat  from  this  time  forth,"  said  the  Rat.  "  Agreed,"  replied 
the  Wild-hog.  So  they  pledged  each  other  to  keep  their 
word. 

Then  said  the  Wild-hog,  "  Now  you  shall  go  in  first,  and 
I'll  go  afterwards."  Very  well,"  said  the  Rat,  pushing  himself 
into  the  midst  of  the  fuel ;  but  he  burrowed  rapidly  into  the 
ground,  and  hid  himself  in  the  hole.  Presently  the  Wild-hog 
called  out,  "  Shall  I  light  it  now  ?  "  "  Yes,"  said  the  Rat.  So 
the  Wild-hog  set  fire  to  the  heap,  but  it  did  not  hurt  the  Rat,  as 
he  was  safe  in  the  hole.  So  as  soon  as  it  was  all  burnt  up,  out 
he  came  unhurt,  and  strutting  about  and  looking  very  big,  he 
shouted  out,  "  What  do  you  say  to  that  ?  How's  that  ? " 
adding,  "  Come,  you  must  go  too,  Mr.  Wild-hog." 


MALAGASY  FOLK-TALES  AND  FABLES. 


261 


"  Entered,  the  Wild-hog,  ah  ! 
Pushed  in,  the  Wild-hog,  ah  ! 
Is  taken  in,  the  Wild-hog,  ah  ! 
Is  snugly  hid,  the  Wild-hog,  ah  ! 
Is  covered  up,  the  Wild-hog,  ah  ! 
Is  choked,  the  Wild-hog,  ah  ! 
Sleeps,  the  Wild-hog,  ah  ! 

The  Wild-hog,  ah  ! 
Breathes  hard,  the  Wild-hog,  ah  ! 
Endures,  the  Wild-hog,  ah  !  " 

So  he  set  fire  to  the  dry  grass,  and  soon  it  was  in  a  blaze  ; 
but  alas  for  the  poor  Wild-hog,  who  struggled  and  turned 
about,  for  his  back  was  scorched  ;  so  he  cried  out,  "  Help  me, 
Mr.  Rat,  I  am  burnt ;  help  me,  younger  brother,  for  I'm  scorch- 
ing ;  help  me,  my  friend,  or  I'm  consumed  ;  help  me,  you 
wretch,  or  I'm  killed." 

But  the  Rat  gave  him  no  help  for  all  that,  for  he  was 
splitting  with  laughter,  but  he  danced  about,  and  shouted  out 
thus  : — 

"  Burn  away,  fire  ! 
Go  along,  fire  ! 
Consume  him,  O  fire  ! 
Blaze  away,  fire  ! 
Die,  Mr.  Worn-out  ! 
Die,  you  old  wretch  ! 
Die,  old  Spade-mouth  ! 
Die,  old  Fetch-what-you-see  ! 
Die,  old  Short-loin-cloth  ; 
Die,  old  Snout-grubber  ! 
How  do  you  like  it  ? 
How^  are  you  now  ? 
Soon  you  are  done  for, 
Soon  you  squeal  out, 
Soon  you  are  shrivelled, 
Soon  you  are  doubled  up, 
Soon  \'ou  won't  move." 

But  after  a  little  the  Wild-hog  made  a  desperate  effort  and 
got  out  from  among  the  fire,  but  his  skin  and  his  fore  and  hind 
feet  were  terribly  burnt,  although  he  was  still  alive.  So  the 
Rat  said,  "  It  was  all  a  joke  of  mine,  but  go  and  bathe  in  the 
water."  So  the  Wild-hog  went  and  did  so,  but  as  soon  as  he 
had  bathed  he  was  dead. 


CHAPTER  XIIL 


DIVINATION  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY,  TOGETHER  WITH 
NATIVE  IDEAS  AS  TO  FATE  AND  DESTINY. 


The  Sikldy — Subject  investigated  by  Mr.  Dahle — Little  organised  idolatry 
among  the  Malagasy — Diviners — Divination  and  fate — Invocation  of  the 
Sikldy — Sixteen  figures  of  the  SiJddy — Sixteen  columns  of  the  Sikldy — 
Erecting  the  Sikldy — Working  of  the  Sikldy — Identical  figures — Unique 
figures — Combined  figures — Miscellaneous  Sikldy — Gun  charms — Trade 
charms — Medicinal  charms — Fortunate  places  and  days — Ati-pako — Fate 
as  told  by  zodiac  and  moon — Lucky  and  unlucky  days — House  divination 
— Fate  as  told  by  the  planets — Days  of  the  week — Decreasing  influence  of 
the  Sikldy. 

I  ^OR  more  than  two  centuries  past  it  has  been  well  known 


X  to  those  Europeans  who  have  resided  for  any  length  of 
time  in  Madagascar,  that  a  somewhat  elaborate  system  of 
divination,  called  Sikldy  or  Sikily,  is  practised  by  almost  all  the 
various  tribes  inhabiting  the  island.  Within  the  last  five  or  six 
years  the  subject  has  been  investigated  in  a  most  complete 
manner  by  the  Rev.  Lars  Dahle,  and  I  propose  to  give  in  this 
chapter  a  summary  of  the  information  Mr.  Dahle  has  obtained, 
omitting  many  of  the  minuter  points  of  philology.  Mr.  Dahle 
has  brought  to  his  researches  a  very  accurate  knowledge  of 
Arabic,  as  well  as  of  the  Semitic  languages  generally,  and  hence 
he  has  thrown  a  flood  of  light  upon  what  had  previously  been 
hopelessly  obscure. 

Mr.  Dahle  thus  describes  the  native  beliefs  in  the  efficacy  of 
divination  : — "  If  you  w^ant  to  look  into  the  future,  to  detect 
secret  enemies  or  dangers,  to  find  out  what  is  to  be  your  lot  of 
good  or  evil,  the  sikldy  is  the  means  of  doing  it.    And  the  best 


DIVINATION  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  263 

of  it  is  that  it  does  not,  like  the  Fates  or  Farces  of  old,  merci- 
lessly leave  you  to  your  destiny,  but  kindly  undertakes  to  avert 
the  dreaded  evils.  If  you  are  sick,  the  vipisikidy  or  diviner  does 
not  at  all — like  many  of  our  modern  doctors — treat  you  '  ten- 
tatively,' which  really  means  leaving  you  and  nature  to  settle 
the  matter  between  yourselves  as  best  you  can  ;  neither  are 
they  shallow-minded  enough  to  treat  the  case  merely  '  sympto- 
matically.'  As  diligent  men,  they  set  to  work  immediately, 
and,  as  truly  scientific  doctors,  they  first  try  to  find  out  the 
cause  of  the  evil,  and  then  the  means  of  removing  it.  And  if 
they  can  give  you  ho  other  benefit  in  a  desperate  case,  they  will 
at  least  cheer  up  your  spirits  with  a  good  assurance,  generally 
terminating  in  a  very  emphatic  phrase,  to  the  effect  that  '  if 
you  die,  you  shall  be  buried  on  the  top  of  their  head.'  And 
even  if  your  spirit  has  actually  left  you,  they  do  not  give  you 
up  in  despair,  as  I  shall  have  occasion  to  point  out  subsequently. 

"  I  am,  however,  reluctantly  forced  to  admit  that  I  am  not 
able  entirely  to  exculpate  my  friends  from  the  accusation  that 
there  is  a  slight  tinge  of  medical  heresy  about  them,  inasmuch 
as  their  old  system  of  faditra  (i.e.,  expiatory  offerings  or  piacula) 
seems  to  rest  upon  the  homoeopathic  principle,  Siniilia  siinilibus 
curantur ;  for  the  faditra  (i.e.,  the  thing  the  diviner  ordered  to 
be  thrown  away  to  prevent  or  avert  an  evil)  was  generally 
something  that  in  name,  shape,  or  number,  &c.,  was  similar  to 
the  evil  in  question.  For  example,  if  the  sikidy  brought  out 
maty  roa  ("  tw^o  deaths "),  two  locusts  should  be  killed  and 
thrown  away,  to  prevent  the  death  of  two  men  ;  if  it  brought 
out  inardry  ('  sick '),  a  piece  of  the  tree  called  Hdzo  inardry 
('  sick  tree ')  should  be  made  a  fdditi-a,''  and  so  on. 

"  The  people  had  a  remarkable  trust  in  their  diviners  and 
their  art ;  this  appears  even  in  the  names  by  which  they  called 
them.  In  Imerina  and  Betsileo  (the  two  most  important  central 
provinces  of  the  island),  it  was  quite  common  to  style  them 
simply  Ny  vidsina  ('  The  sacred  ones '),  a  term  which,  however, 
did  not  so  much  imply  sanctity  as  strength  and  superhuman 


264  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

power.  In  the  outlying  provinces — especially  in  the  south  and 
west — they  are  generally  called  ambiasa  or  ombiasy^  as  they 
were  also  called  among  the  Antanosy  at  Fort  Dauphin  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Flacourt,  and  this  term  is  the  Arabic  ambiay 
'  prophet' 

"  The  word  sikidy  (probably  from  the  Arabic  sichr,  '  charm, 
incantation ')  has  been  generally  translated  '  divination/  but 
it  has  a  somewhat  wider  sense,  as  it  includes  both  the  in- 
vestigation of  what  is  secret,  and  the  art  of  finding  out  the 
remedy  for  it,  if  it  proves  to  be  of  such  a  nature  that  such  a 
remedy  is  required ;  but  the  second  depends  on  the  first.  There 
are  three  kinds  of  sikidy  which  are  employed  almost  exclusively 
in  finding  out  what  is  secret ;  while  the  other  kinds  have  more 
to  do  with  remedying  the  evils.  The  first  class,  however,  forms 
sikidy  par  excellence^  manipulated  according  to  a  rather  intricate 
system  ;  the  second  class  depends  upon  it,  and  seems  to  be  of  a 
somewhat  more  arbitrary  character." 

Before  proceeding  further,  a  word  or  two  must  be  said  as  to 
the  Malagasy  notions  of  vintana  or  fate,  as  the  practice  of  the 
sikidy  largely  depends  on  these  beliefs.  The  word  vintana 
Mr.  Dahle  believes  to  be  an  obsolete  collateral  form  of  the 
Malagasy  word  kintana,  "  a  star  "  (Malayan  bintang),  and,  in  its 
restricted  meaning,  denotes  the  destiny  of  a  man  as  depending 
on  the  times  as  declared  by  the  stars  at  the  time  of  birth,  and 
also  the  fitness  (or  the  reverse)  of  certain  times  for  certain 
actions  {e.g.,  for  a  burial).  The  first  of  these  was  the  vintana 
proper  ;  the  second  was  more  accurately  styled  San-dndro 
(literally,  "  the  hours  of  the  day,"  from  the  Arabic  sda,  "  hour," 
but  also  used  in  a  wider  sense  of  "  any  moment."  As  might  be 
inferred  from  its  name  (if  the  above  explanation  of  it  be 
correct),  the  vintana  in  its  turn  rests  upon  astrology.  The 
different  days  of  the  month,  and  the  months  throughout  the 
year,  are  each  supposed  to  be  connected  with  different  constel- 
lations. Mr.  Dahle  has  shown  that  the  native  names  of  the 
months  are  all  Arabic  in  origin,  and  are  the  names  of  the  twelve 


DIVINATION  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  265 

Signs  of  the  Zodiac,  while  the  names  for  the  separate  days  of 
the  months  are  the  twenty-eight  "  Moon-stations  "  on  which  the 
Malagasy  (originally  Arabic)  chronology  and  astrology  depend. 
In  the  san-andro  an  important  part  is  played  by  the  "  Seven 
Planets  "  of  the  ancients,  that  is,  including  the  sun  and  moon, 
not  excluding  the  earth,  and  of  course  also  the  more  distant 
planets,  which  were  then  not  know^n  at  all.  The  astrologers 
had,  however,  a  good  deal  to  do  outside  the  domain  of  astrology 
and  fate,  for  they  had  not  only  to  find  out,  and,  if  necessary, 
counteract  the  influences  of  nature,  but  also  those  of  bad  spirits 
and  bad  men,  as  well  as  of  the  evil  eye. 

I.  The  Awakening  of  the  Sikidy. — The  sikidy  was 
generally  manipulated  with  beans  or  certain  seeds,  especially 
those  of  the  fano  tree,  a  species  of  acacia.^  When  the  inpisikidy 
had  placed  a  heap  of  these  seeds  or  beans  before  him  and  w^as 
about  to  begin,  he  inaugurated  his  proceedings  with  a  solemn 
invocation,  calling  upon  God  to  awaken  nature  and  men,  that 
these  might  awaken  the  sikidy  to  tell  the  truth.  The  following 
is  the  formula  used  : — 

"  Awake,  O  God,  to  awaken  the  sun !  Awake,  O  sun,  to 
awaken  the  cock  !  Awake,  O  cock,  to  awaken  mankind  ! 
Awake,  O  mankind,  to  awaken  the  sikidy — not  to  tell  lies,  not 
to  deceive,  not  to  play  tricks,  not  to  talk  nonsense,  not  to  agree 
to  anything  indiscriminately  ;  but  to  search  into  the  secret,  to 
look  into  what  is  beyond  the  hills  and  on  the  other  side  of  the 
forest,  to  see  what  no  human  eye  can  see. 

"  Wake  up,  for  thou  art  from  the  long-haired  Silamo 
(Moslem  Arabs),  from  the  high  mountains,  from  Raboroboaka 
and  others  "  (here  follow  nine  long  names).  "  Awake  !  for  we 
have  not  got  thee  for  nothing,  thou  art  dear  and  expensive. 
W>  have  hired  thee  in  exchange  for  a  fat  cow  with  a  large 
hump,  and  for  money  on  which  there  was  no  dust.  Awake  !  for 
thou  art  the  trust  of  the  sovereign  and  the  judgment  of  the 
people.    If  thou  art  a  sikidy  that  can  tell,  that  can  see,  and  does 

*  Piptadcnia  chrysostachys. 


266  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

not  only  speak  of  the  noise  of  the  people,  the  hen  killed  by  its 
owner,  the  cattle  slaughtered  in  the  market,  the  dust  clinging 
to  the  feet  {i.e.^  self-evident  things),  awake  here  on  the  mat ! 

"  But  if  thou  art  a  sikidy  that  does  not  see,  a  sikidy  that 
agrees  to  everything  indiscriminately,  and  makes  the  dead  living 
and  the  living  dead,  then  do  not  arise  here  on  the  mat." 

It  is  evident  that  the  sikidy  was  looked  upon  as  the  special 
means  used  by  God  for  making  known  His  will  to  men  ;  and 
it  is  at  the  same  time  characteristic  enough  that  it  was  thought 
necessary  to  "  awaken  "  God  {cf.  I  Kings  xviii.  27).  In  the  long 
list  of  persons  through  whom  the  people  are  said  to  have  got 
the  sikidy  are  the  Silamo  (from  "  Islam  "),  chiefly  Arabs,  who 
are  also  called  Kardny,  "  readers,"  i.e.,  those  who  read  the  Koran. 
Several  other  Arabic  words  occur  in  this  invocation,  as  well  as 
in  the  whole  terminology  connected  with  the  sikidy,  as  will  be 
noticed  further  on.  Most  of  the  names  given  above,  in  the  list 
of  "  authorities  "  from  whom  the  Malagasy  are  said  to  have 
received  the  practice  of  divination,  are  rather  obscure.  Among 
them  is  that  of  the  "  Vazhnba,"  who  are  supposed  to  be  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  island  before  the  arrival  of  its 
present  Malayo-Polynesian  and  Melanesian  colonists.  They 
may  be  mentioned  either  because  the  diviners  were  anxious  to 
have  the  sikidy  connected  with  everything  that  was  mysterious 
and  pointed  back  to  the  mythical  days  of  old  ;  or,  possibly, 
because  the  Vazimba  were  really  the  people  who  first  received 
the  sikidy  from  the  Arabs,  and  that  the  other  tribes  in  their 
turn  got  it  from  the  Vazimba. 

It  may  be  added  that  individual  inpisikidy  of  any  repute 
seem  each  to  have  had  their  own  form  of  invocation,  or  at  least 
made  considerable  variations  in  the  wording  of  it,  although  its 
general  bearing  seems  to  have  been  very  much  the  same. 

II.  The  Sixteen  Figures  of  the  Sikidy. —  Having 
finished  his  invocation,  the  diviner  began  to  work  the  sikidy 
(lit,  "  to  raise  it  up  "),  taking  beans  or  fdno  seeds,  and  arranging 
them  on  a  mat  on  the  floor  according  to  rules  to  be  presently 


DIVINATION  AMONG  THE  ^lALAGASY.  267 

explained.  These  beans  or  seeds  must  be  represented  by  dots. 
They  were  as  follows  : — 


Ho7-a  Xaiiics. 

Sakalava. 

Arabs  ofE.  Africa. 

1.  : 

i    Jama  (or  Zoma)   

...  Asombola 

Asombola 

• 

:  Alahizany 

Alizaha 

Alahoty 

3-  : 

•.  Asoralahy 

Asoralahy 

Alasady 

4- 

=.    Votsira  (=  Vontsira) 

Karija 

Tabata  horojy 

5- 

i  Taraiky   

...  Taraiky 

Asaratany 

6. 

:•  Saka   

...  Alakaosy 

labadanila 

7- 

:*    AsoravaN'y'      ...       ...       ...  ... 

A    0  V\i  I'l 
...      .'-vCulucll  ct 

Afaoro 

8.  • 

Alikisy  

...  Alikisy 

Alijady 

9. 

=•    Aditsima  (Aditsimay)   

...  Alatsimay 

Alizaoza 

10.  • 

"•  Kizo   

...  Alakarabo 

Alakarabo 

II.  . 

;.  Adikasajy   

...  Betsivongo 

Adizony 

12.  : 

•:    Vanda  mitsangana  (=  Mikarija)  ... 

...  Adalo 

Alahamaly 

13-  • 

Vanda  miondrika  (=  Molahidy)  ... 

. . .  Alahotsy 

Alakaosy 

14.  = 

Alokola   

...  Alikola 

Adalo  (?) 

15.  ; 

•;  Alaimora 

...  Alihimora 

Alihimora 

16.  ; 

•:  Adibijady 

...  Alabiavo 

Bihiava 

The  names  in  the  first  row  are  those  in  use  in  the  interior ; 
the  order  seems  immaterial,  but  that  here  followed  seems  most 
systematic,  commencing  with  the  fullest  form  (jj),  and  taking 
away  one  bean  (or  dot)  for  each  figure  until  only  four  (  \  )  are 
left,  and  then  adding  one  again  to  each,  by  which  proceeding 
we  get  the  first  eight  figures.  The  next  eight  are  formed  by 
placing  twos  and  ones  in  various  combinations.  The  theory 
of  the  whole  is  evidently  that  not  more  than  eight  beans  can 
be  used  in  any  figure,  and  that  all  of  the  figures  must  contain 
four  in  length  (or  height),  while  there  may  be  two  or  one  in 
breadth.  The  names  in  the  second  and  third  columns  were 
obtained  from  an  Arab  trader,  and  are,  several  of  them  at  least, 
easily  recognisable  as  the  Arabic  names  for  several  of  the 
months,  but  for  many  centuries  naturalised  among  the  Malagasy; 
and  these,  as  already  mentioned,  are  the  Arabic  names  for  the 
Signs  of  the  Zodiac,  while  others  seem  to  be  those  of  the  Moon- 
stations.  Mr.  Dahle  has  minutely  examined  the  list  of  Hova 
names,  some  of  which  are  Malagasy,  but  obscure  in  meaning, 
while  most  of  them  appear  to  be  of  Arabic  origin,  and  several 
are  also  evidently  derived  from  astrology ;  among  others,  the 


268  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

constellations  Virgo,  Aries,  Aquarius,  Sagittarius,  Pisces,  and 
Capricornus  seem  to  be  denoted. 

III.  The  Sixteen  Columns  of  the  Sikidy  (lit,  "The 
Sixteen  Mothers  of  Sikidy  — To  the  sixteen  figures,  or  various 
combinations  of  the  beans  or  seeds  by  ones  and  twos  in  the 
sikidy,  correspond  the  sixteen  columns  (called  by  Mr.  Dahle 
"rubrics"),  places,  or  rows,  in  which  they  are  arranged  in 
working  the  oracle  ;  one  figure  being  placed  in  each  column, 
not,  however,  that  all  the  figures  must  necessarily  occur.  The 
same  figure  may  occur  more  than  once,  and  some  of  the  sixteen 
figures  may  not  occur  at  all  in  the  sixteen  columns,  as  that  is 
purely  a  matter  of  chance.  If  the  columns  are  arranged  in  the 
manner  usual  in  the  practice  of  sikidy,  we  get  the  combination 
of  squares  given  on  the  next  page. 

It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance,  however,  that  we  have  got  more 
than  sixteen  names  here,  although  the  rows  or  columns  are 
really  not  more  than  twelve,  corresponding  probably  to  the 
twelve  Signs  of  the  Zodiac.  If  a  skilful  diviner  is  asked  for 
Ny  sikidy  i6  reny,  he  will  only  enumerate  the  names  given  in 
the  first  (top)  row  {Talc — Vbhitj^d),  the  four  to  the  right  of  it 
{Zatbvo — Fahavalo),  and  the  eight  below  {Ti-ano — Fdhasivy), 
giving  us  the  sixteen  complete.  The  others  seem  to  be  con- 
sidered as  accessory  and  of  secondary  importance.  Some  of 
them  are  simply  repetitions,  with  this  difference,  that  they  refer 
to  things  in  anotJier  person's  house,  not  in  that  of  the  inquirer 
for  whom  the  sikidy  operation  in  question  is  undertaken. 
Others  are  placed  to  the  left  side  of  the  lower  square,  and  others 
at  the  six  corners. 

Mr.  Dahle  proceeds  to  investigate  each  of  the  thirty-four 
words  shown  in  the  diagram  ;  and  points  out  that  while  the 
majority  of  them  are  Malagasy,  about  four  or  five  are  evidently 
Arabic.  The  Malagasy  words  are  those  in  ordinary  everyday 
use,  as  those  for  wealth,  relations,  village,  youth,  woman,  enemy, 
house,  road,  inquirer,  God,  diviner,  wild-cat,  dog,  sheep,  goat, 
fowl,  much  bloodshed,  &c.    Of  the  four  or  five  derived  from  the 


DIVINATION  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY. 


269 


Arabic,  the  first  word,  Talc,  apparently  meaning  "  investigator  " 
or  "explorer,"  always  represents  in  the  sikidy  the  person  or 
thing  concerning  whom  (or  which)  the  inquiry  is  made. 

In  reading  or  examining  the  columns,  the  first  four  [Talc 
—  Vbhitrd)  and  the  eight  below  {Trdno — Fahasivy)  are  read 
from  above  downwards.  The  eight  to  the  right  {Zatbvo — Firia- 
riavand)  are  read  from  right  to  left.     The  four  to  the  left 


Tsmin  ny 
vilona 


Alika 

Olon- 
drdtsy 


i 

Harina 

• 

• 

• 

•c 

Zatovo 

• 

• 

Manna 

• 

• 

Vihivdvy 

e 

c  • 

• 

Fdha- 

vdio 

• 

«• 

0 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Zatovo  antrdno 
hafa 

• 

•  0 

e 

0 

0 

• 

c  • 

Marina,do. 

• 

9 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

Vehivdyry,  do 

Fin  and  van  a 
do. 

Kororozy 


55 


■  Arrangetneat  of  Columns  m  the  Sikidy  DivinaticA 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  COLUMNS  IN  THE  SIKIDY  DIVINATION. 


[Kororosy — Tsinin'  jiy  velond)  are  read  from  left  to  right,  while 
the  names  at  the  corners  are  read  diagonally. 

IV.  The  Erecting  of  the  Sikidv  (i.e.,  the  placing 
of  the  figures  in  the  columns). — So  far,  we  have  only  seen  the 
machinery,  so  to  speak,  with  which  the  divination  is  worked  ; 
now  let  us  try  to  understand  how  the  diviner  proceeded  in  order 
to  gain  the  information  desired  in  the  great  variety  of  inquiries 


270  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

made  of  him.  In  the  diagram  here  given,  all  the  columns  are 
filled  with  figures,  just  as  a  veritable  mpisikidy  would  do,  except 
that  dots  are  used  instead  of  beans  or  seeds.  The  rules  for 
"  erecting  the  sikidy "  will  now  be  given. 

1.  The  first  four  columns  {Tale — Vbhitrd)  are  filled  with 
figures  in  the  following  manner.  From  the  heap  of  beans 
before  him  the  mpisikidy  takes  a  handful  at  random,  and  from 
this  handful  he  takes  out  two  and  two  until  he  has  either  two 
or  one  left.  If  two  are  left,  he  puts  two  beans,  if  one,  one  bean, 
into  the  first  or  upper  square  of  Tale.  In  the  same  manner  he 
fills  the  remaining  three,  Harena,  Fahatelo,  and  Vbhitra,  square 
by  square,  from  above  downwards. 

2.  When  these  four  columns — one  of  which  represents  the 
person  or  thing  regarding  whom  or  which  the  sikidy  is  made — 
are  filled  in  the  manner  described,  the  remaining  eight  are  filled 
by  a  combination  of  these  first  four,  or  of  others  that  have 
already  been  filled  by  a  combination  of  these.  This  is  done  in 
such  a  manner  that  two  figures  are  chosen  and  compared  square 
by  square  from  above  downwards.  If  this  combination  gives  an 
odd  number  {i.e.,  if  one  of  the  two  combined  squares  has  one 
bean,  and  the  other  two),  only  one  bean  is  put  in  the  corre- 
sponding square  of  the  new  figure  to  be  formed  ;  but  if  it  gives 
an  even  number  {i.e.,  if  the  two  combined  squares  both  contain 
one  bean,  or  both  two  beans),  two  beans  are  put  into  the  new 
figure. 

3.  These  combinations  are  subjected  to  the  following  rules  : — 

(a)  Talc  and  Harena  {i.e.,  a  combination  of  the  two  in  the  manner 

described),  form  Lalana. 
{b)  FahaUlo  and  Vuliitra  form  Asbrotdny. 

(c)  Lalana  and  Asbrotany  form  Mpanontany, 

(d)  Zatbvo  and  Marina  form  Nia. 

{e)  Vehivavy  and  Fdhavalo  form  Fdhasivy. 

(/)  Nia  and  Fdliasivy  form  Mdsina. 

{g)  Masina  and  Mpanontany  form  Andriamaiiitra. 

(//)  AndriamanUra  and  Tale  form  Trano. 


DIVINATION  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  2/ 1 

A  glance  at  the  diagram  here  given  will  show  that  all  the 
eight  figures  below  have  actually  been  formed  according  to 
these  rules.  If  we,  for  instance,  compare  Tale  and  Harena, 
from  which  Lalana  is  to  be  formed,  we  get  dissimilar 
numbers  all  the  way,  as  all  the  pairs  of  squares  have  one 
and  two,  and  consequently  Lalana  gets  only  one  bean  in  all 
its  squares.  Exactly  the  same  procedure — mutatis  inutaiidis 
— takes  place  in  the  filling  in  of  the  remaining  seven  columns 
below. 

V.  TriE  Working  of  the  Sikidv. — When  the  sikidy  is 
"  erected "  or  arranged  in  the  manner  just  described,  the 
question  arises  :  What  is  to  be  done  with  it  ?  How  to  work 
it  so  as  to  get  an  answer  to  your  questions,  a  medicine  for  your 
sickness,  or  a  charm  against  the  evils  of  which  you  may  be 
apprehensive,  &c.  ? 

Let  it  be  remarked  at  the  outset,  that  the  sikidy  properly 
deals  with  questions  put  to  it.  To  answer  these  is  its  proper 
function.  But  if  you  ask  what  is  the  root  of  an  evil,  or  the 
means  of  removing  or  averting  it,  &c.,  the  answer  will  of  course 
point  out  to  you  the  cure  of  your  evils  as  well,  and  so  far, 
appear  as  ars  medica.  There  are,  however,  kinds  of  sikidy  in 
which  no  question  is  put,  but  the  remedy  for  the  evil  is  pre- 
scribed at  once.  But  as  these  are  rather  different  from  the 
ordinary  sikidy -process,  they  will  be  noticed  in  a  separate 
section.  What  concerns  us  now  is,  the  ordinary  sikidy,  the 
business  of  which  is  to  give  answers  to  our  questions. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done,  after  having  "  erected  the  sikidy,'' 
is  to  see  what  figure  we  have  got  in  the  column  named  Andiia- 
manitra  (God)  ;  for,  out  of  the  sixteen  figures,  only  half  of  them 
(Nos.  I,  3,  5,  7,  9,  12,  13,  14)  are  considered  to  "agree"  with 
Andriainanitra.  These  are  called  the  "  Xobles  "  or  "  Kings  "  of 
the  sikidy,  whereas  the  remaining  eight  are  called  its  "  Slaves." 
If  any  of  these  latter  figures  happen  to  get  into  the  said  column, 
the  sikidy  becomes  invalid,  and  the  whole  has  to  be  broken  up 
and  commenced  anew  ;  for  the  sikidy  has  not  done  proper 


272  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

honour  to  God  in  putting  a  slave  in  His  column,  and  cannot  be 
expected  to  tell  the  truth  in  His  name. 

This  point,  however,  being  successfully  arranged,  the  next 
business  is  to  choose  one  of  the  four  first  columns  {Tale — 
VohitrcL)  to  represent  the  question,  or,  rather,  the  person  or 
thing  it  refers  to.  As  Tale  is  to  represent  everything  that 
cannot  be  put  under  the  headings  "  property,"  "  relations,"  or 
"  village,"  the  choice  cannot  be  very  puzzling ;  but  this  being 
settled,  the  proceedings  branch  out  into  the  following  parts, 
which  Mr.  Dahle  terms  :  (a)  The  Sikidy  of  Identical  Figures  ; 
(b)  The  Sikidy  of  Different  Figures  ;  and  (c)  The  Sikidy  of 
Combined  Figures. 

A.  The  Sikidy  of  Identical  Figures. — Having  settled  which 
of  the  four  first  columns  is  to  represent  the  question,  the  next 
thing  is  to  examine  which  of  the  sixteen  figures  happens  to  be 
in  the  column  representing  it.  This  being  found,  we  go  on 
examining  all  the  other  figures  except  the  others  of  the  first 
four  (for  these  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  answer),  that  is  to 
say,  those  on  the  right  side,  those  on  the  left,  and  those  on  the 
two  corners  to  the  left. 

If  we,  thus  examining  them,  find  that  any  of  them  is  like  the 
one  representing  the  inquiry,  this  may  or  may  not  settle  the 
question,  or,  in  other  words,  give  us  the  answer.  This  depends 
on  the  nature  (name)  of  the  column  in  which  it  is  found.  This 
Mr.  Dahle  illustrates  thus  :  "  If  I  expect  a  ship,  and  am  going 
to  inquire  about  its  coming  by  means  of  the  sikidy^  the  column 
Harena  (or  property)  will  of  course  represent  it.  If  in  this 
column  I  find,  for  instance,  the  figure  faina  (  ; :  ),  and  on  further 
examination  find  the  same  figure  in  the  column  Trano  (house), 
this  gives  me  no  answer,  as  there  is  no  natural  connection 
between  the  two  conceptions.  If,  on  the  contrary,  I  find  the 
same  figure  in  the  column  called  Lalana  (road),  then  of  course  I 
know  that  the  ship  is  at  any  rate  on  the  way.  I  have  then  got 
an  answer  to  the  chief  question  ;  but  there  may  still  be  good 
reasons  for  a  sharp  look-out,  for  there  may  be  difficulties  in  its 


DIVINATION  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY. 


273 


way.  Suppose  that  I  also  find  the  same  figure  in  the  column 
named  Fahavalo  (enemy),  my  mind  will  immediately  be  filled 
with  gloomy  apprehensions  of  pirates  !  Not  a  bit  more  cheerful 
will  be  my  prospects  if  I  find  the  same  figure  under  Ra  be  man- 
driaka  (much  bloodshed).  But  what  a  consolation,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  the  same  figure  reappears  in  the  column  Nia  (food)  ; 
for  then  I  must  certainly  be  a  blockhead  if  I  do  not  understand 
that,  although  the  ship  may  have  a  long  voyage,  there  is  no 
scarcity  of  food  on  board  ;  and  so  on.  It  is  easy  enough  to  see 
that  a  man  with  much  practice  and  a  good  deal  of  imagination 
could  produce  much  '  information '  in  this  manner  ;  and  I 
suppose  that  in  a  good  many  cases  the  vipisikidy  were  able  to 
find  an  answer  already  in  this  first  act  of  their  proceedings,  even 
if  the  means  of  finding  it  might  seem  scanty  enough  to  ordinary 
mortals." 

But  there  is  much  more  still  that  may  be  done  ;  for,  besides 
the  answers  available  from  the  fact  of  the  identity  of  the  figure 
representing  the  question  with  one  or  more  of  those  in  the  other 
columns,  it  is  of  great  importance  to  find  out  whether  any  two 
or  more  of  the  other  figures  are  alike,  and  in  how  many  columns 
the  same  figure  occurs  in  a  sikidy.  The  detailed  particulars 
given  by  Mr.  Dahle  on  the  point  may  be  put,  for  the  sake  of 
brevity,  into  a  tabular  form  : — 


Cohuiius  -vi'itli  same  Figurjcs. 

1.  Fall  a  shy  and  Masina 

2.  „       „  ma 


Native  Word  for 
Combination. 

=  Tsi-rbugatra 

=  Mati-rba 


3.  Fahatelo 

4.  Trlino 

5-  >) 
6  Andro 


Harena        =  Vahbaka 
Mpanontany  =  Tsindrilasy 
Lalana        =  Sa}npoua 
Asbrotany     =  Lalii-antitra 


7.  Fahasivy    ,,    Asbrotany    —Ravbakbny  - 

8.  Vbhitrd      ,,    Fahatelo      =  Fotbau-tsi-iuihatva 


9.  Lalana 


Sia 


=  Fehi-tsi-rbso 
19 


Meaning. 

■  does  not  move  or  agitate. 

:  two  deaths  ;  this  is,  two  w^ill 
die,  but  two  locusts  may 
be  thrown  awa^-  as  a 
faditra  or  piacuhim. 

-  a  crowd  of  people. 

:  enemy  approaching. 

:  hindrances  expected. 

:  old  man  ;  that  is,  the  sick 
will  recover,  and  reach 
old  age. 

:  a  mouthful  thrown  out  (?). 

:  the  fixed  time  will  not  be 
kept. 

the  troops  will  not  advance. 


274  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


The  fallowing  five  possibilities  refer  to  somewhat  different 
cases,  thus  : — 

10.  If  the  figure  Alokbla  (::)  occurs  three  times  in  different  columns,  three 
stones  are  to  be  thrown  away  as  a  faditra  to  avert  evil. 

11.  If  Vanda  mitsangana  (  •■■  )  occurs  three  times,  the  feathers  of  a  white  hen 
are  to  be  a  faditra. 

12.  If  Alaimbra  (  )  occurs  twice,  it  means  that  the  son  of  a  mighty  man  is 
likely  to  be  a  mighty  man  too. 

13.  If  Saka  (  V  )  occurs  in  Trano  and  Vontsira  (  '■.  )  in  Talc,  or  Alaimbra 
(  X  )  in  Trano,  and  Adibijady  (  v  )  in  Tale,  the  case  will  follow  the  analogy  of 
the  one  preceding  it ;  e.g.,  if  my  child,  who  was  formerly  ill,  was  cured,  this  one 
will  be  cured  ;  if  it  died,  this  one  will  die  too. 

14.  If  a  sikldy  happens  to  contain  eight  Vontsira  (  A  )  they  are  called  "  the 
eight  healthy  men,"  and  are  considered  an  excellent  remedy  against  disease,  as 
will  be  shown  later  on. 

It  is  evident  that  many  of  these  "  meanings  "  can  be  con- 
strued into  answers  to  questions,  although  the  general  tendency 
of  many  of  them  seems  to  be  rather  to  point  out  the  faditra  to  be 
used  against  the  evil.  But  it  might  happen  that  the  figures  were 
all  unlike  one  another,  at  any  rate  that  those  which  were  like 
the  one  in  the  column  representing  the  question  were  so  incon- 
gruous with  it  that  even  the  inventive  imagination  and  the 
greatest  acuteness,  sharpened  by  long  practice,  would  prove 
unequal  to  the  task  of  construing  it  into  a  reasonable  answer  to 
the  question.  In  such  cases  the  mpisikldy  was  obliged  to  have 
recourse  to  other  operations,  viz.,  the  Sikldy  tbkana  and  the 
Lojin-tsikidy ,  of  which  the  first  one  is  comparatively  simple, 
while  the  latter  one  was  very  complicated.  Each  of  these  will 
now  be  briefly  explained. 

B.  The  Sikldy  of  Unique  Figures. — If  it  happens  that  any 
of  the  twelve  principal  columns  {Tale — Vbhitra  and  Trano — 
Fahasivy)  gets  a  figure  which  does  not  occur  in  any  of  the 
other  columns,  this  is  called  Sikldy  tbkana^  "  a  sikldy  that  stands 
alone "  ;  and  consequently  there  are  twelve  possible  kinds  of 
this  species  of  sikldy.  Often  many  of  the  columns  may  happen 
to  have  unique  figures  ;  in  the  diagram,  for  instance,  Mdsina, 
Asbrotdny,  Trano,  and  Tale  have  each  one  occurring  in  no  other 
column.    But  it  would  be  remarkable  (although  it  is  possible)  if 


DIVINATION  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  275 

all  the  twelve  columns  got  figures,  so  that  all  the  rules  for  sikidy 
tokana  became  applicable  in  the  same  sikidy. 

The  twelve  columns  are  enumerated  in  a  certain  order  by  the 
diviners.  First  comes  Andriamanitra  (God),  then  the  four  at 
the  top  of  the  diagram,  and  finally  the  seven  remaining  ones 
below.  In  all  the  twelve  classes  of  sikidy  tokana  the  meaning 
depends  on  which  of  the  sixteen  figures  it  is  that  occurs  as 
unique  in  the  column  in  question.  In  many  cases  only  a  few  of 
them  have  any  special  meaning  attached  to  them,  as  will  appear 
from  the  following  rules  regarding  each  class  : — 

I.  Unique  Figures  in  the  Column  Andriamanitra. — As  only 
eight  of  the  figures  can  be  placed  in  this  column  without  making 
the  whole  sikidy  invalid,  as  previously  mentioned,  we  only  get 
eight  varieties  : — 

{a)  If  figure  9  occurs,  it  denotes  that  a  thing  can  be  done  seven 

times  without  any  hindrance. 
(6)  If  figure  7,  you  must  throw  away  a  cooking-pot  full  of  rice,  and 

are  likely  to  get  rich. 

(c)  If  figure  3,  which  is  here  called  Mahatsangaiuiy  is  taken  {i.e.,  the 

beans  composing  it)  and  applied  to  a  reed  (vdloisangana)  of 
the  same  length  as  the  man  for  whom  the  sikidy  is  worked, 
and  this  is  thrown  away,  it  will  bring  good  luck. 

(d)  If  figure  14,  it  is  an  excellent  charm  against  gun-shot  {ddi- 

basy). 

(e)  If  figure  13,  the  beans  composing  it  are  taken  and  mixed  with  a 

herb  called  tambindana  ;  the  sick  person  licks  this  six  times, 
and  it  is  then  put  on  the  top  of  his  head. 
(^f)  If  figure  12  (here  called  H  el  oka,  guilt),  the  six  beans  of  the  figure 
are  placed  on  as  many  rice-husks,  which  are  then  thrown  away 
as  a  faditra. 

(g)  If  figure  I,  a  tree  called  andrarezina  (a  species  of  Trcma)  is  to  be 
the.  faditra. 

(Ji)  If  figure  5,  a  white  hen  and  a  tree  called  fbtsinanahdry  ("  white 
one  of  the  Creator'")  are  to  be  the  faditra. 

2.  Unique  Figures  in  Tale. — This  is  the  only  column  in  which 
all  the  figures  have  a  special  meaning ;  but  as  they  are  much  in 


2/6  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

the  same  style  as  those  aheady  given  under  Andriamanitra,  it 
would  be  tedious  to  give  them  in  detail.  Mr.  Dahle  observes 
here  :  "  I  do  not  intend  the  reader  to  practise  the  sikidy  (this 
secret  I  shall  of  course  keep  for  my  own  use !),  but  only  wish  to 
give  him  an  idea  as  to  what  it  is." 

3.  Unique  Figures  in  the  other  Columns. — In  the  other  fourteen 
columns  the  number  of  figures  having  special  meanings  varies 
from  one  to  fourteen  out  of  the  sixteen  possibilities  ;  but  space 
and  time  do  not  allow  any  further  details,  especially  as  their 
general  character  is  shown  by  the  examples  given  under  Andria- 
mdnitra.  Most  of  them  simply  suggest  an  answer  to  a  question, 
frequently  also  giving  a  remedy  against  the  evil  intimated  by  the 
answer.  As  a  specimen,  however,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  when 
the  figure  Saka  occurs  in  the  column  Trdno,  it  is  considered  as 
an  excellent  remedy  for  sterility  if  the  five  beans  of  the  figure 
are  mixed  with  milk,  which  is  then  to  be  put  into  fourteen  frag- 
ments of  pumpkin  shell,  and  given  to  fourteen  children,  who  are 
then  to  put  some  rice  into  a  pot,  from  which  the  sterile  woman 
eats  it.  Many  of  the  rules  in  this  kind  of  sikidy  refer  to  sterility, 
sickness,  or  death. 

Under  this  section  of  Unique  Figures,  Mr.  Dahle  describes 
two  other  kinds  of  siktdy  which  are  closely  connected  with  the 
preceding  ones,  and  called  respectively  (i)  "  Sikidy  mutually 
corresponding,''  and  (2)  "  Sikidy  providing  a  substitutory  sacri- 
fice:' 

It  would,  however,  be  tedious  to  go  further  into  detail  on  this 
part  of  the  subject ;  but  it  may  be  remarked  that  in  the  original 
papers  minute  particulars  are  given  of  these  various  forms  of 
sikidy  and  of  the  ways  of  working  them. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  (C.)  The  Sikidy  of  Combined 
Figures,  which  shows  how  further  combinations  of  the  figures 
in  various  columns  are  obtained  by  the  observance  of  strict 
rules  in  each  case  ;  as  many  as  eighty-one  new  columns  con- 
tributing materials  for  as  many  new  answers  to  questions.  This 
sikidy,  says  Mr.  Dahle,  reminds  him  of  the  Danish  proverb  : 


DIVINATION  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY. 


Deceit  is  a  science,  said  the  Devil,  when  he  gave  lectures  at 
Kiel." 

VI.  Mlscellaneous  Sikidv. — In  all  the  varieties  of 
^/Xrie^  hitherto  dealt  with,  the  chief  object  in  view  has  been  to 
get  an  anszuer  to  questions,  while  it  has  been  only  a  secondary 
and  subordinate  object  to  find  out  the  remedies  against  evils, 
that  is,  if  the  answer  informed  us  that  some  evil  might  be 
apprehended.  But  now  we  come  to  some  sikidy  practices,  the 
chief  object  of  w^hich  was  to  remedy  the  evils,  or  to  procure  a 
prophylactic  against  them.  In  other  forms  of  this  miscellaneous 
sikidy  the  object  aimed  at  was  to  find  times  and  directions 
when  and  where  something  was  to  be  found,  or  was  to  take 
place. 

Rules  are  then  given  for  the  obtaining  by  means  of  the 
sikidy  of  charms  for  various  purposes,  especially  (i)  charms 
against  gun-shot  ;  (2)  trade  charms  ;  (3)  love  charms ;  (4) 
general  charms;  (5)  charms  against  vomiting;  (6)  charms 
against  dislike  to  food  ;  (7)  charms  against. food  having  a  ghost 
in  it ;  (8)  and  charms  for  bringing  back  a  semi-departed  spirit. 

I.  Andron-tdny  (lit,  "days  of  the  land,"  but  in  the  sense  of 
the  different  quarters  or  directions  of  the  compass,  as  expressed 
by  the  place  in  the  house  assigned  to  each  day).  What  is  really 
meant  by  this  somewhat  indefinite  heading  is,  the  art  of  finding 
out  in  what  direction  you  are  to  seek  for  a  thing  that  is  lost, 
stolen,  or  strayed,  &c.  And  this  is  denoted  by  the  sikidy 
bringing  out  a  certain  figure  in  a  certain  column,  showing  that 
the  thing  wanted  was  to  be  looked  for  in  a  certain  direction. 
For  in  the  old  native  houses,  which  are  always  built  with  the 
length  running  north  and  south,  and  the  single  door  and  window- 
on  the  west  side,  the  names  of  the  twelve  months  are  given  to 
twelve  points  of  the  compass,  four  at  the  corners  and  two  on 
each  side.  For  instance,  if  the  sikidy  brought  out  a  figure  which 
pointed  to  the  south-east,  the  diviner  did  not  call  it  so,  but  said 
it  pointed  to  Asorotany,  i.e.,  the  constellation  Cancer  and  also 
the  name  of  a  Malagasy  month,  which,  in  the  arrangement  just 


2/8  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

mentioned,  has  its  place  assigned  to  it  at  the  south-eastern 
corner  of  the  house. 

J.  Andro  fotsy  (lit,  "white  days,"  i.e.,  the  days  on  which 
something  expected  or  sought  for  was  to  happen).  "  Suppose," 
says  Mr.  Dahle,  "  I  have  lost  a  slave.  It  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  me  to  know  on  what  day  I  shall  find  him  ;  for 
then  I  do  not  trouble  myself  about  searching  for  him  before  the 
day  is  come.  Consequently  I  go  to  the  diviner.  He  knows 
that  certain  combinations  in  certain  columns  denote  the  different 
days  of  the  week  ;  and  if,  for  instance,  these  columns  prove  to 
be  Harena  and  Fahasivy,  then  he  knows  that  what  he  asks 
about  will  occur  on  Wednesday  {Alarobla).  And  so  with  the 
other  days  of  the  week." 

The  Betsimisaraka  have,  besides  the  systematic  kind  of 
sikidy  already  described  {Sikidy  alanand),  at  least  six  other 
kinds.  These  are  said  to  be  much  simpler  than  the  ordinary 
kind  of  divination  ;  one,  for  instance,  has  only  two  columns  or 
rows ;  another  kind  can  hardly  be  properly  called  sikidy  at  all. 
The  procedure  is  simply  the  following :  You  take  an  indefinite 
number  of  grass  stalks,  and  you  then  take  out  two  and  two 
until  you  have  only  one  or  two  left.  But  you  must  have  settled 
in  your  own  mind  at  the  outset  whether  one  left  shall  mean 
good  luck,  and  two  bad  luck,  or  vice  versa. 

Another  kind  of  sikidy,  the  Ati-pako,  is  thus  described  :  "A 
mode  of  recovering  stolen  property  without  detecting  the  thief ; 
all  the  servants  or  employes  are  required  to  bring  something,  as 
a  small  bundle  of  grass,  &c.,  and  to  put  it  into  a  general  heap. 
This  affords  an  opportunity  to  the  thief  of  secretly  returning  the 
thing  stolen." 

VII.  We  now  come  to  the  last  division  of  our  subject,  viz., 
that  of  ViNTANA  and  San-andro,  or,  as  Mr.  Dahle  thinks  this 
section  might  be  termed,  ( i )  Zodiacal  and  Lunary  Vintana,  and 
(2)  Planetary  Vintana. 

A.  What,  then,  is  vintana  ?  If  a  man  was  ill,  people  often 
said,  "  Perhaps  the  vintana  of  his  son  is  too  strong  for  him,  or 


DIVINATION  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  2/9 

he  has  become  subject  to  some  misfortune,"  so  they  said, 
"  Vhitany  izany  aiigaha  "  ("  Perhaps  that  is  his  vintana  ").  Or 
perhaps  he  was  perpetually  unsuccessful  in  business,  and  they 
said,  "  Olona  ratsy  vintana  izany  "  ("  That  man  must  have  a  bad 
vintana  ").  Even  immorality  {e.g.,  an  unmarried  woman  becom- 
ing pregnant)  was  excused  by  the  remark,  "  Vznta?iy  Many 
angaha  izany  "  ("  Perhaps  that  is  her  vintana  "),  meaning  that 
there  was  no  helping  it. 

Vintana  seems  like  the  fatuin  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
an  invisible  power  that  made  itself  felt  always  and  everywhere. 
The  destiny  of  a  man  (his  vintana)  depends  on  what  day  he 
was  born  (partly  also  on  what  time  of  the  day),  or,  rather,  on 
what  constellation  of  the  Zodiac  governed  the  day  of  his  birth. 
It  was  therefore  incumbent  upon  the  inpamintana  (those  who 
dealt  with  the  vintana),  or  the  mpanandro  (day-makers  or 
declarers),  who  were  also  diviners,  to  inquire  about  the  day  or 
time  of  the  day  of  a  child's  birth  in  order  to  make  out  its 
vintana,  i.e.,  under  what  constellation  it  had  been  born,  and 
what  influence  this  would  have  on  its  destiny. 

As  the  names  of  the  constellations  of  the  Zodiac  also 
became  the  names  of  the  months,  and  of  the  days  of  the  month 
(at  least  in  the  interior  provinces),  it  is  not  clear  what  influence 
was  attributed  to  the  moon  ;  but  that  it  was  not  considered  to 
be  without  some  influence  appears  from  the  following  facts : — 
{a)  Although  the  days  of  the  months  had  seemingly  borrowed 
their  names  from  the  constellations  of  the  Zodiac,  they  really 
represented  the  28  "  Moon-stations  "  of  the  Arabs.  In  Flacourt's 
time  (230  years  ago)  these  were  still  retained  on  the  south-east 
coast,!  but  in  the  interior  of  Madagascar  they  have  been  super- 
seded by  a  somewhat  simplified  nomenclature,  that  is,  by  simply 
calling  them  first  and  second,  or  first,  second,  and  third  (or 
equivalent   names),   as   the   case   may   be,   of  each  month, 

^  Here,  for  example,  are  the  three  Moon-stations  in  Alahamady  :  (i)  As- 
sharatani,  (2)  Al-butaina,  (3)  Az-zurayya,  or  names  of  the  first  three  days  in  every 
month. 


280  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Alahamady,  Adaoro,  and  the  rest.^  {b)  The  Malagasy  year 
was  a  lunar  one  (345  days).  And  (<:)  both  the  sun  and  the 
moon  take  their  place  as  governors  of  the  days  of  the  week. 

Besides  the  division  of  the  year  into  months,  the  Malagasy 
have  from  time  immemorial  known  a  hebdomadal  unit,  the 
week,  the  days  of  which  have  Arabic  names.  These  days 
were  thought  to  be  under  the  special  influence  of  the  "  Seven 
Planets  "  {i.e.,  what  were  by  the  ancients  so  called,  viz.,  the  Sun, 
the  Moon,  Mars,  Mercury,  Jupiter,  Venus,  Saturn),  as  will  be 
noticed  presently  under  San-andr-o. 

"  It  is  easy  to  see,"  says  Mr.  Dahle,  "  that  the  whole  life  of  a 
Malagasy  would  be  thought  to  be  under  the  influence  of  these 
heavenly  bodies,  and  consequently  at  the  mercy  of  those  who 
are  supposed  to  understand  these  often  very  intricate  affairs. 
People  are  generally  under  the  spell  of  those  who  know  their 
destiny  beforehand  (while  they  do  not  know  it  themselves),  who 
have  the  power  of  remedying  the  evils  of  it,  and  are  able  to  tell 
them  both  what  they  ought  to  do,  and  when  they  should  do  it. 
When  we  remember  the  great  influence  that  astrologers  had  over 
emperors,  kings,  and  princes  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  even 
far  into  the  seventeenth  century,  we  can  easily  understand  what 
powers  they  must  have  had  (and  still  have)  in  a  country  like 
Madagascar." 


'  The  following  are  the  Malagasy  month-names,  with  their  Arabic  derivations 
and  equivalent  Zodiac  signs  : — 


Malagasy. 

Arabic. 

Zodiac  Signs,. 

I.  Alahamady 

Al-hamalu 

=  Aries. 

2.  Adaoro 

Atz-tzauru 

=  Taurus. 

3.  Adizaoza 

Al-dsehauza'u 

=  Gemini. 

4.  Asorotany 

As-saratanu 

=  Cancer. 

5.  Alahasaty 

Al-asadu 

~  Leo  major. 

6,  Asombola 

As-sunbulu 

=  Spica  in  Virgo,  which  constellation 

it  represents  here. 

7.  Adimizana 

Al-mizana 

=  Libra. 

8.  Alakarabo 

Al-aqrabu 

=z  Scorpio. 

9.  Alakaosy 

Al-qausu 

=  Sagittarius  and  arcus. 

10.  Adijady 

Al-dsehadiu 

=  Capricornus. 

II.  Adalo 

Ad-dalvu 

=  Aquarius. 

12.  Alohotsy 

Al-hutu 

=  Pisces. 

DIVINATION  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY. 


281 


With  regard  to  lucky  and  unlucky  days,  the  following  remarks 
may  be  made  : — 

1.  Although  the  different  months  were  thought  to  have  their 
peculiar  character  (according  to  the  constellations  they  were 
named  from)  and  their  special  piacula  and  offerings,  &c.,  it  does 
not  appear  that  one  month  was  considered  more  unlucky  than 
another.  The  difference  in  this  respect  was  a  difference  between 
the  different  days  of  the  month  ;  which,  it  must  be  remembered, 
were  named  after  the  month-names  also,  eight  having  two,  and 
four  three,  days  respectively  allotted  to  each,  as  ist,  2nd,  and 
3rd  of  Alahamady ;  ist  and  2nd  of  Adaoro  ;  and  so  on,  but 
each  of  the  twenty-eight  being  also  called  by  the  names  of  the 
Manazil-ul-kainari,  or  moon -stations. 

2.  The  characters  of  the  days  evidently  did  not  depend  so 
much  on  from  what  month-name  it  took,  as  on  what  moon- 
station  it  represented.  Therefore  we  often  find  two  successive 
days  with  the  same  name  common  to  both,  of  which  one  was  con- 
sidered good,  the  other  bad  ;  e.g.,  the  ist  and  2nd  of  Asorotany 
were  good,  and  were,  and  are  still,  favourite  days  for  faviadihana 
(the  ceremony  of  removing  corpses  from  an  old  family  grave  to 
a  new  one)  ;  but  the  third  day  w^as  considered  bad. 

3.  Some  days  were  considered  absolutely  bad  ;  e.g.,  the  3rd 
of  Asorotany,  the  2nd  of  Asombola,  the  2nd  of  Alakaosy,  and 
the  1st  of  Adijady ;  others  were  absolutely  good,  the  three 
days  called  Alahamady,  and  the  2nd  of  x-\lakarabo  ;  others  again 
were  considered  indifferent,  e.g.,  the  ist  and  2nd  of  Alahasaty. 

4.  Some  days  again  were  not  considered  good  in  general,  but 
still  good  enough  for  special  purposes  ;  e.g.,  the  ist  of  Alakarabo 
was  excellent  for  a  house-warming  ;  the  2nd  of  Adijady  was 
good  for  marking  out  the  ground  for  a  new  town  ;  and  the  3rd 
of  Adimizana  was  a  lucky  day  to  be  born  on,  but  a  bad  day  for 
business. 

5.  Some  days  had  a  special  peculiarity  of  their  own  ;  e.g., 
children  born  on  the  2nd  of  Adalo  generally  became  dumb  !  so 
they  said. 


282  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

6.  Even  the  bad  days  were  generally  so  only  in  the  sense  of 
having  too  strong  a  vlntana.  This  was  especially  the  reason 
why  children  born  on  these  days  were  considered  a  very  doubtful 
gift.  Hence  the  infanticide  in  former  times  in  the  central  pro- 
vinces of  Madagascar,  and  still  practised  in  most  parts  of  the 
country  where  Christianity  has  not  yet  been  taught.  Some- 
times, however,  the  diviner  managed  to  remedy  the  evil  in 
one  way  or  another  ;  and  occasionally  nothing  more  was 
required  than  to  give  the  child  a  name  which  intimated  that 
the  child  would  not  do  any  harm,  notwithstanding  its  strong 
vlntana.  Hence  such  names  as  Itsimanosika,^  Itsimandratra,^ 
Itsimaniho,3  Itsiman61aka,4  &c.,  all  expressing  in  a  general  way 
that  the  child  would  be  harmless.  Those  born  on  the  2nd  of 
Adalo  were  often  called  Itsimarofy  ("  One  who  is  not  ill "),  to 
avert  the  danger  of  dumbness. 

Not  only  were  the  twenty-eight  days  of  the  month  called 
after  the  month-names  (and  also  after  the  moon-stations),  but, 
as  already  mentioned,  a  Hova  house  of  the  old  style  had  also  its 
sides  and  corners  named  after  the  same  fashion,  beginning  with 
the  first  month-name,  Alahamady,  at  the  north-eastern  corner, 
that  is,  the  sacred  part  of  the  house,  where  the  family  charm 
was  placed,  and  where  prayers  and  invocations  were  offered. 
The  inmates,  on  each  day^  had  to  take  particular  care  not  to 
go  to  the  corner  or  side  assigned  to  that  particular  day,  or,  at  all 
events,  not  to  place  a  sick  person  there,  for,  by  so  doing,  they 
would  provoke  the  spirit  of  that  region. 

Mr.  Dahle  says  that  the  vlntana  is  really  the  key  to  the  whole 
system  of  idolatry  in  Madagascar,  and  to  everything  connected 
with  it,  at  least  so  far  as  it  got  any  real  hold  on  the  people ; 
while  the  sikldy  practice  is  also  closely  mixed  up  with  it,  although 
many  points  still  need  further  investigation. 

B.  The  last  division  of  the  subject,  that  of  San-andro  or 
Planetary  Vlntana,  must  be  discussed  very  briefly.    The  word 


^  One  who  does  not  push, 

3  One  who  does  not  elbow. 


^  One  who  does  not  hurt. 
^  One  who  does  not  weaken. 


DIVINATION  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY. 


283 


san-andro^  in  its  use  among  the  Malagasy,  means  the  pecuHarities 
or  character  of  the  days  of  the  week  as  depending  on  the  Seven 
Planets,  considered  as  governors  of  these  days.  The  following 
is  a  list  of  the  days  of  the  Malagasy  week,  together  with  their 
respective  san-andro  names,  and  their  special  numbers  and 
characters  : — 


English 

Mala!^asy 

San-dudio 

Name. 

Xanw. 

Navtc. 

Sunday 

Alahady  ' 

Samosy 

Monday 

Alatsinainy 

Alakamary 

Tuesday 

Talata 

Mariky 

W^ednesday 

Alarobia 

Motarita 

Thursday 

Alakamisy 

Mosataro 

Friday 

Zoma 

Zohara 

Saturday 

Asabotsy 

Johady 

Meaning.      Character.  Number. 


Shams 

Sun 

good 

I 

Al-gamar 

Moon 

bad 

5 

Marrik 

Mars 

good 

2 

Utarit 

Mercury 

good 

6 

Mushtari 

Jupiter 

bad 

3 

Zahro 

Venus 

bad 

7 

Zahal 

Saturn 

neutral 

4 

The  fourth  column  of  the  above  list  gives  the  Arabic  names 
of  the  Seven  Planets,  from  which  the  san-andro  names  of  the 
week-days  were  clearly  derived. 

Any  one  who  has  the  slightest  knowledge  of  Latin  will  see 
immediately  that  what  were  in  Malagasy  the  extraordinary 
day-names,  only  used  in  san-andro,  were  in  Latin  the  ordinary 
day-names  {Dies  Solis,  Lunce,  Martis,  &c.)  ;  and  their  retention 
in  part  amongst  modern  European  nations,  with  changes,  as 
among  ourselves,  for  Teutonic  god-names,  for  some  days,  is 
well  known.  The  explanation  of  this  rather  curious  fact,  no 
doubt,  is  that  the  astrology  of  Babylonia  spread  both  to  Arabia 
and  from  thence  to  Madagascar,  and  also  to  Europe  ;  and  that, 
according  to  this  astrology,  the  planets  in  question,  and  the 
gods  identified  with  them,  held  the  sway  over  the  days  of  the 
week  ;  and  it  depended  on  the  supposed  nature  of  each  planet 
whether  the  day  under  its  sway  should  be  considered  a  lucky  or 
an  unlucky  one.     Why  such  differences  were  supposed  to  result 

^  Mr.  Dahle  had  previously  shown  (in  Antananarivo  Annual,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  205, 
206)  that  these  native  names  for  the  days  of  the  week  are  of  purely  Arabic  origin, 
the  first  five  names  being  simply  numerals  from  one  to  five,  the  first  four  being 
cardinals  used  as  ordinals,  and  the  fifth  an  ordinal  ("  One  day,"  "  Two  day,"  &c.)  ; 
the  sixth  is  from  DscJiuwa,  "  Congregation  Day,"  the  Sabbath  of  the  Moham- 
medans ;  while  the  seventh  is  simply  the  Hebrew  "Sabbath,"  slightly  altered  in 
spelling  and  termination. 


284  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

from  the  different  planets  it  is  difficult  to  say  ;  but  the  notion  of 
lucky  and  unlucky  days  has  been  tenaciously  held  by  the 
common  people  in  the  different  countries  of  Europe,  and  still 
retains  its  hold  in  many  places. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  last  column  of  the  above  list 
gives  a  certain  number  connected  with  each  day-name,  and  that 
these  do  not  follow  the  order  in  which  the  days  occur  in  the  week, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  first.  These  numbers  have,  however, 
great  importance  in  the  practical  part  of  san-andro,  as  will  be  seen, 
I.  The  San-andro  of  the  Dead,  or  Direct  San-andro. — This  had 
reference,  apparently,  exclusively  to  burials  ;  if  a  corpse  was  to 
be  buried,  it  would  probably  be  done  on  a  "  good  "  day  (Sunday, 
Tuesday,  or  Wednesday)  ;  but  the  proceedings  depended  greatly 
on  the  numbers  characteristic  of  the  san-andro  of  that  day.  If, 
for  instance,  it  was  on  Wednesday,  the  special  number  of  which 
is  6,  they  had  to  stop  six  times  with  the  bier  on  the  way  to  the 
grave,  throw  down  a  stone  at  each  stopping-place,  and  carry  the 
corpse  six  times  round  the  grave  before  they  buried  it.  And  so, 
mutatis  mutandis,  with  the  other  days,  according  to  their  special 
numbers. 

2.  The  San-andro  of  the  Living,  or  the  San-andro  which  was 
counted  "  Backwards!' — This  appears  to  have  had  reference  only 
to  sacrifices ;  in  offering  these,  the  invocations  made  by  the 
priest  referred,  not  to  the  san-andro  of  the  day  the  offering  was 
made,  but  to  that  of  "  the  day  before  yesterday,"  in  other  words, 
two  days  backward.  Offerings  could  only  be  brought  on  the  three 
"  good  "  days  ;  but  the  sikidy  could  be  performed  on  any  day. 

3.  The  Character  of  the  Seven  Days  of  the  Week  in  relation  to 
Evils  and  the  Foretelling  of  Evils. — The  following  rules  were 
given  to  Mr.  Dahle  by  his  native  "  professor  "  ; — 

1.  Sunday  was  the  proper  day  for  everything  white: 

white-haired  people,  white  stones,  &c. 

2.  Monday  :  the  day  for  everything  gi^een  and  blackish : 

grass,  forests,  greenish  birds,  people  with  blackish 
skin,  &c. 


DIVINATION  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  285 

3.  Tuesday :  the  day  of  people  who  have  many  scars 

and  are  marked  from  small-pox. 

4.  Wednesday  :  the  day  of  women  and  everything  female 

5.  Thursday:        ^^.y  oi  slaves. 

6.  Friday :  the  day  of  nobles  and  everything  red  (red  or 

scarlet  clothes,  &c.),  characteristic  of  the  higher 
nobility. 

7.  Saturday :  the  day  of  young  people  and  everything 

yomig. 

So  if  a  man  suffering  from  some  evil  came  to  a  diviner  on 
a  Sunday,  he  would  be  told  that  his  complaint  had  been  caused 
by  some  white  stone  ;  or  by  drinking  milk,  in  which  there  were 
some  ghosts,  or  that  he  had  been  bewitched  by  some  white-haired 
\\-oman  ;  or,  at  any  rate,  that  he  was  in  danger  of  some  such 
mishap,  and  had  better  look  out  carefully.  If  he  came  on  Thurs- 
day, his  trouble  was  almost  sure  to  be  attributed  to  some  slave 
or  he  was  warned  to  beware  of  his  slaves,  lest  they  should 
murder  or  bewitch  him.  And  so  on,  for  the  other  days,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  day. 

4.  Foretelling  of  the  Tdsik'  dndro,  i.e.,  the  day  on  which  one 
may  be  in  special  danger  of  getting  ill  through  the  influence  of 
the  vintana. — This  division  of  the  sa7i-dndro  was  a  peculiar  com- 
pound of  vintana  and  sikidy  subjected  to  certain  rules,  by  which, 
beginning  with  Tuesday,  different  columns  in  the  sikidy  point  to 
the  different  days  of  the  week  ;  e.g.,  if  a  combination  of  the  two 
columns  Trdno  and  Ldlana  in  the  sikidy  erected  gives  a  figure 
which  is  like  Tale  (which  represents  the  man  in  question),  he  is 
in  danger  of  being  taken  ill  on  Tuesday.  If  the  figures  in 
Ldlana  and  Mpdnontdny  are  like  Talc,  Wednesday  is  the  unlucky 
day  for  him  ;  and  so  on  with  other  combinations. 

As  Mr.  Dahle  says,  the  sikidy  and  vintana  were  once  the 
most  tremendous  powers  in  Madagascar ;  let  us  thank  God 
that  their  spell  is  broken,  and  their  influence  passing  away. 


CHAPTER  XIV, 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.- 


Two  great  divisions  of  the  people — Idea  of  impurity  in  connection  with  death — 
A  revolting  custom — Funeral  feasts — Taiikaraiia — Their  carved  coffins — 
Analogies  to  those  of  Philippine  Islanders — Betsimisaraka — Ranomena — 
Tambahoaka,  Taimoro,  and  Tanosy — The  Fanano — Tandroy  and  Mahafaly 
— Sakalava — The  Zomba  or  sacred  house — Vazimba — Behisotra  and  Tan- 
drona  —  Sihanaka  —  Bezanozano  —  Tanala  —  Vorimo  —  Ikongo  —  Hova  — 
Betsileo — Bara — Funeral  of  Radama  I. — Enormous  wealth  put  in  tomb — 
Silver  coffin. 

I  "^UNERAL  rites  and  ceremonies  are  not  the  same  among 


X  all  the  different  races  inhabiting  Madagascar.  Regarded 
from  this  point  of  view,  the  Malagasy  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups  :  first,  those  whose  cemeteries  are  hidden  in  the  depths 
of  the  forests,  or  in  the  midst  of  rocks,  in  solitary  places,  which 
are  held  in  great  awe  ;  ^  and  secondly,  those  who  inter  their 
relatives  by  the  roadside,  and  often  in  the  midst  of  their 
dwellings.3 

The  majority  of  these  place  the  dead  in  the  hollowed-out 
trunk  of  a  tree,  which  they  cover  with  a  lid  in'  the  shape  of  a 
pent,  or  rounded  roof ;  the  Hova,  however,  simply  wrap  the 
corpse  in  lainba^  more  or  less  numerous  according  to  the 
wealth  of  the  family ;  and  it  appears  that  the  Bara  content 

^  Translated  from  an  article  by  :M.  A.  Grandidier  in  the  Rcviic  d'Etliiioilrapliic. 
Paris,  1886,  pp.  213-232. 

These  are,  the  Betsimisaraka  and  other  tribes  on  the  east  (with  the  exception 
of  the  Tambahoaka,  the  Taimoro  and  the  Tanosy,  who  have  a  considerable  Arab 
admixture),  and  the  Tandroy,  the  jNIahafaly,  the  Sakalava,  the  Tankarana.  and 
the  Bara. 

3  These  are  the  Sihanaka,  the  Taimoro,  the  Tambahoaka,  the  Tanosy,  and 
especially  the  Hova  and  the  Betsileo. 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  28/ 

themselves  with  placing  the  corpse  perfectly  naked  upon  the 
ground.  Besides  this,  however,  the  Malagasy  always  im- 
mediately proceed  with  the  toilet  of  the  deceased,  the  nearest 
relatives  of  the  same  sex  washing  the  corpse,  dressing  its  hair 
and  wrapping  it  in  new  cloths. 

The  two  principal  eastern  tribes,  the  Betsimisaraka  and 
the  Tanala,  as  well  as  the  Tankarana,  the  Tankoala,  and 
certain  tribes  of  the  Bara,  do  not  bury  the  coffin  ;  they  place 
it  either  simply  on  the  ground,  or  on  a  little  framework  sur- 
rounded by  a  palisade  and  covered  with  a  pent  roof,  or  in  a 
fissure  of  rock  ;  but  all  the  others,  that  is  to  say,  the  greater 
part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  island,  place  it  in  the  ground  and 
cover  it  with  a  heap  of  stones  of  rectangular  shape.  The  head 
of  the  corpse  is  turned  towards  the  east,^  and  they  enclose  in 
the  tomb  various  articles,  such  as  earthen  vessels,  pots  of 
incense,  cloths,  &c. 

All  the  Malagasy  hold  the  notion  of  impurity  in  connection 
wath  a  corpse.  Xo  funeral  procession  can  pass  near  a  sovereign, 
or  even  near  to  his  dwelling  or  the  sacred  stones  ;  those  who 
have  followed  it  are  obliged  to  purify  themselves,  and  in  those 
districts  where  the  tombs  are  placed  far  from  dwellings,  every 
person  found  in  a  cemetery  is  considered  as  a  sorcerer  and  is 
punished  with  death.  It  is  further  worthy  of  notice  that  the 
Malagasy  have  a  great  fear  of,  but  also  a  profound  respect  for, 
the  dead.  They  think  it  of  the  first  importance  that  they  should 
be  buried  in  the  ancestral  cemetery  or  tomb  ;  and  not  only  the 
Hova,  but  the  greater  portion,  if  not  all,  of  the  native  tribes 
often  bring  from  great  distances  the  bones  of  their  relatives 
so  that  they  may  be  deposited  in  their  native  soil.  When  they 
cannot  recover  the  body  of  a  deceased  relative,  they  inter  in  its 
stead  his  pillow  and  sleeping  mat,  and  in  any  case  they  erect 
a  funeral  monument  in  commemoration  of  the  departed,  con- 

'  I  have,  however,  been  told  that  the  Sihanaka  turn  the  head  of  the  coffin 
towards  the  north,  and  the  Hova  place  in  their  graves  the  corpses  of  grand- 
parents at  right  angles  to  those  of  their  descendants. 


288  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

sisting  of  a  slab  of  stone,  a  timber  post  or  other  structure. 
A  vow  to  the  dead,  to  the  lolo,  as  the  coast  people  term  them, 
is  sacred. 

There  is  a  custom,  as  repugnant  as  it  is  extraordinary,  which 
is  prevalent  almost  everywhere  except  among  the  Hova,  by 
which  the  corpse  is  not  interred  immediately  after  death ; 
the  relatives  wait  until  the  body  is  decomposed,  and  often 
collect  the  putrid  liquid  which  flows  out,  setting  it  aside. 
It  is  needless  to  say  that  in  such  circumstances  the  "  waking " 
of  the  corpse  is  far  from  agreeable,  and  it  is  only  by  drinking 
neat  rum,  by  burning  incense  and  suet  and  even  hides,  that 
the  parents  and  friends  are  able  to  bear  the  nauseous  odours 
which  poison  the  air.  During  all  this  time  many  of  the  native 
tribes  offer  food  and  drink  to  the  corpse.  This  custom  is 
essentially  Malagasy,  for  it  is  not  practised  by  the  Hova,  who 
are  of  Malay  origin,  nor  by  the  families  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
east  coast  tribes,  who  are  descended  from  Arabs  or  Europeans ; 
it  seems  to  have  for  its  object  to  prevent  interring  with  the 
bones  the  corruptible  matter  which  causes  decomposition  of 
the  flesh,  and  which  they  consider  impure. 

Funerals  are  also  all  over  Madagascar  accompanied  by  real 
feasts,  at  least  in  all  families  who  are  rich  or  in  easy  circum- 
stances. They  kill  oxen,  often  in  considerable  numbers,  they 
drink  rum  to  excess,  they  eat  plenty  of  rice  and  meat,  they 
fire  off  muskets,  the  whole  being  interspersed  with  doleful 
songs  and  weeping.  The  relatives  never  eat  the  flesh  of  the 
oxen  killed  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  one  of  their  own 
family.  Mourning  is  always  marked,  either  by  unbraided  and 
dishevelled  hair,  or  at  the  decease  of  sovereigns,  by  the  head 
being  shaved,  coarse  and  dirty  garments  only  being  worn,  the 
people  neither  washing  nor  combing  their  hair,  nor  allowing 
themselves  to  look  in  a  mirror,  should  they  happen  to  possess 
one. 

Such  are,  in  brief,  the  principal  funeral  customs  of  the 
Malagasy.    We  shall  now  proceed  to  point  out,  in  the  briefest 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  289 

possible  manner,  the  differences  which  exist  between  the 
usages  of  the  different  tribes,  beginning  with  those  of  the 
north  and  the  east.  It  is  nevertheless  well  to  remark  that 
among  certain  of  them,  especially  those  whose  Christianity 
has  commenced  to  exert  its  happy  influence,  these  old  customs 
are  beginning  to  disappear. 

The  Tankdrana. — The  Tankarana  are  accustomed  to  wrap 
the  dead  either  in  an  ox-hide,  or  in  split  bamboos,  or  in 
rabannas  {rofia  cloth),  which  they  tie  round  with  cords  of  rojia 
fibre,  and  leave  them  exposed  for  a  long  time  under  a  shed, 
where  they  do  not  cease  to  burn  various  resins  in  little  clay 
vessels.  Beginning  on  the  third  day,  they  frequently  tighten 
the  cords,  until  there  is  hardly  anything  left  but  the  bones, 
which  they  afterwards  place  in  a  hollowed  tree  trunk,  generally 
of  rather  small  dimensions.  This  coffin,  closed  with  a  lid 
formed  like  a  roof,  is  then  carried  to  a  solitary  spot,  usually 
an  uninhabited  island,  where  it  is  put  in  a  hollow  of  the 
rocks,  or  simply  on  the  ground  ;  a  supply  of  provisions  is 
placed  near  the  deceased.  The  coffins  are  renewed  when  they 
become  decayed  from  age.  The  following  description  has  been 
given  of  one  of  these  coffins,  which  was  sent  to  the  Natural 
History  Museum,  in  Paris,  in  1886,  by  a  (French)  naval  officer, 
M.  P.  Germinet,  commander  of  the  Romanche^  and  which  comes 
from  the  little  rocky  islet  called  Nosy  Loapasana,  whose  name 
signifies  "  hollowed  out  by  tombs."  ^ 

This  coffin,  cut  out  of  a  tree  trunk,  measures  5  feet  long  by 
8:^  in.  broad  ;  the  cavity  which  has  been  hollowed  out  of  it  is 
4  feet  long  by  5  in.  to  6  in.  wide.  At  the  place  for  the  head,  two 
recesses  increase  the  width  to  6J  inches.  The  lid,  in  form  like 
a  roof,  is  5  ft.  4J  in.  long  by  9  in.  broad  ;  it  is  ornamented  by 
a  zigzag  pattern  cut  in  relief,  which  follows  the  edges,  the  ridge, 
and  the  hips  (so  to  speak)  of  the  roof-like  cover  ;  also  by  a 
transverse  strip  of  herring-bone  ornament  at  about  the  middle 

'  This  islet  is  situated  at  the  head  of  Diego  Suarez  Bay  ;  the  maps  show  it 
under  the  name  of  He  du  Sepulchre. 

20 


290  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


of  the  length  and  meeting  at  the  ridge,  and  with  four  small 
circles  with  cross  lines  cut  in  them.  The  lid  fits  into  a  rebate 
formed  all  round  the  hollow  of  the  coffin,  and  which  forms  a 
projection  of  a  little  more  than  J  inch.  The  general  form  of 
the  coffin  is  in  all  respects  similar  to  that  of  the  wooden  sarco- 
phagi which  M.  Alfred  Marche  has  discovered  in  the  burial 
caves  of  Marinduque  and  of  other  small  islands  near  Luzon 
in  the  Philippine  Archipelago. 

Inside  the  coffin,  the  skeleton,  which  is  that  of  a  young 
person  of  twelve  or  fourteen  years  of  age,  is  very  nearly  in  exact 
position,  the  head  being  seen  at  one  end,  and  at  the  other  the 
bones  of  the  legs  and  feet.  The  rest  of  the  body,  evidently 
compressed  transversely  and  mouldering  in  its  wrappings,  shows 
some  of  the  bones  more  or  less  displaced  in  the  midst  of  the 
remains  of  rofia  and  other  cloths,  which  are  still  tightly  bound 
by  rofia  cords.  At  the  foot  of  the  corpse  are  three  small  vessels 
of  baked  clay  mounted  on  a  stand,  which  must  have  served  for 
the  burning  of  perfumes  during  the  ceremonies  preceding  the 
interment.! 

^  It  is  not  without  interest  to  notice  here  that  this  example,  buried  in  a  coffin 
resembling  the  ancient  sarcophagi  used  by  certain  tribes  of  the  Philippines, 
presents  the  exact  characteristics  of  cranium  common  to  the  Indonesians.  M. 
Hamy,  who  has  taken  the  principal  measurements,  has  stated,  indeed,  that  the 
cranium  is  very  plainly  brachycephalic  (diam.  ant.  post,  i68  millim.,  d.  transv. 
max.,  143  ;  ind.  ceph.,  85*i). 

This  exaggerated  brachycephalic  character  cannot,  in  his  opinion,  be  attributed, 
except  in  a  very  small  degree,  to  the  age  of  the  example,  the  cephalic  index 
never  rising,  among  the  young  negroes  of  Africa,  above  78.  This  brachy- 
cephalism  is,  besides,  in  harmony  with  the  existence  of  a  large  occipi to-parietal 
plate,  such  as  one  meets  so  frequently  in  crania  from  the  Indian  Archipelago. 
The  vertical  diameter  is,  at  the  same  time,  sensibly  inferior  to  the  transverse,  a 
circumstance  which  is  not  usual  among  true  negroes. 

Here  are,  in  addition,  the  principal  measurements  given  by  M.  Hamy  as  to 
the  cranium  from  the  tomb  at  Nosy  Loapasana  :  Circ.  horiz.  496  millim.  ;  diam. 
ant.  post,  168  ;  d.  transv.  max.  143  ;  d.  basil,  brcgm.  138  ;  ind.  ceph.  85*1  ;  82-1  ; 
96*5  ;  front  min.  110  milhm.  ;  max.  120;  biorb.  ext.  102  ;  bizygom.  124;  height 
of  face,  76  ;  breadth  of  orbit,  37  ;  height  36  ;  length  of  nose,  46  ;  breadth,  26. 

Three  adult  skulls,  collected  at  the  same  time  and  at  the  same  place  by  M. 
Germinet,  give  the  follow^ing  means  of  the  respective  dimensions  :  Circ.  horiz. 
504  mm.  ;  diam.  ant.  post,  176  ;  d.  transv.  max.  141  ;  d.  basil,  brcgm.  136  ;  ind. 
ceph.  8o-i  ;  77*2  ;  96*4  ;  front,  min.  100  ;  max.  118  ;  biorb.  ext.  108  ;  bizyg.  132 
height  of  face,  90  ;  orbit,  breadth,  39  ;  height,  36  ;  nose,  length,  54  ;  breadth,  27. 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.       29 1 

Among  the  chiefs  of  the  Tankarana,  the  ceremonial  is 
somewhat  different.  The  corpse  is  exposed  on  a  stage  of 
bamboo  hurdles,  sheltered  by  a  roof,  and  covered  over  with 
aromatic  herbs  and  hot  sand,  which  the  attendants  constantly 
renew  until  complete  mummification  is  effected.  It  is  at  length 
deposited  in  a  coffin  which  is  anointed  with  a  mixture  of 
grease,  rum,  and  salt.  The  putrid  liquid  which  exudes  during 
the  operation  just  described  is  received  in  vessels  placed  under 
the  stage,  and  the  slaves  of  the  deceased  chief  anoint  their 
bodies  with  it  from  time  to  time. 

The  Betsimisaraka. — The  Betsimisaraka  keep  their  dead  in 
their  houses  for  a  long  time,  and  the  products  of  decomposition 
are  received  in  a  vessel  to  be  buried  at  a  distance,  in  a  place 
where  the  relatives  erect  a  stone,  to  which  they  afterwards  come 
frequently  to  offer  prayers.  A  lamp  burns  night  and  day  at 
the  head  of  the  corpse,  and  during  all  the  time  of  its  being 
exposed  to  view,  the  widow  ought  no  more  to  leave  the  funeral 
couch  than  she  would  do  if  her  husband  were  still  living.  The 
coffins,  which  are  formed  of  a  hoUowed-out  tree  trunk  with  a 
roof-shaped  lid,  are  placed  in  a  dense  wood,^  and  laid  on  the 
ground  in  regular  order  at  a  little  distance  one  from  the  other, 
as  shown  opposite.  At  the  head  they  generally  place  various 
articles  which  belonged  to  the  deceased,  especially  a  bottle  of 
rum,  a  very  natural  offering  in  a  country  where  drunkenness 
is  a  universal  vice.  Certain  families,  however,  place  their  coffins 
higher  up,  on  a  little  stage,  and  construct  a  shed  to  protect  them 
from  the  rain  and  the  sun  ;  in  these  cases  every  corpse  has  its 
separate  house.  Others  place  the  corpse  in  the  hoUowed-out 
trunk  of  a  tree,  resembling  a  barrel,  of  which  both  ends  are 
closed  by  circular  pieces  of  wood. 

The  customs  followed  at  the  decease  of  a  chief  are  alto- 
gether different,  for  the  interment  follows  immediately  and 

*  In  some  places,  Anonibe,  for  instance,  the  coffins  (which  are  exactl\-  the 
shape  of  large  dog-kennels,  except  that  the  two  sides  of  the  roof  do  not  project) 
I  are  placed,  sometimes  thirty  or  forty  together,  under  the  trees  by  the  sea-side. 


292  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

by  night,  without  any  notice  being  given  to  the  people  of  the 
event  ;  the  news  of  the  misfortune  which  has  happened  to  the 
tribe  is  not,  in  fact,  announced  until  much  later.  It  is  well  to 
remark  here  that  the  Betsimisaraka  chiefs  are  of  foreign  ex- 
traction. 

The  Ranovihia. — Among  the  Ranomena,  who  at  present 
inhabit  the  district  between  Fanantara  and  Marohita,  and  are 
descended  from  the  inhabitants  of  that  part  of  the  east  coast 
where,  in  ancient  times,  Arabs  landed  under  the  leadership  of 
Raminia,  it  is  customary  to  place  the  corpses  on  the  roadside. 
A  hole  is  formed  to  receive  the  liquids  coming  from  the  de- 
composition of  the  body,  and  the  place  is  marked  by  means  of 
a  piece  of  rock,  to  which  the  children  of  the  deceased  come  to 
offer  their  prayers.  The  cemeteries  are  relegated  to  the  depths 
of  the  woods,  and  no  one  goes  there  except  at  the  time  of 
interment. 

The  Tanibahoaka,  Tahnoro  and  Tanosy. — The  Roandriana, 
or  chiefs  of  the  Tambahoaka,  the  Taimoro  and  the  Tanosy, 
who  are  of  Arab  origin,  are  interred  at  night,  one  or  two  days 
after  death.  During  the  lying-in-state,  which  takes  place  in 
the  same  chamber  in  which  the  person  died,  reddish-brown 
Idmba  or  cloths  are  hung  up,  and  a  lamp  is  kept  burning  at  the 
head  of  the  corpse  until  it  is  removed  for  burial  ;  and,  on  the 
first  day,  food  is  placed  at  the  side  of  the  bed  or  bier.  The 
relatives  fasten  to  the  arms  of  the  deceased  small  strips  of  paper 
covered  with  cabalistic  signs  and  Arabic  words.  During  all  this 
time  the  news  of  the  event  is  kept  secret  outside  the  royal 
village,  and  it  is  only  after  a  month  has  elapsed  that  a  white  flag 
is  hoisted  at  the  summit  of  the  house  where  the  corpse  has  lain, 
informing  the  people  generally  of  the  fact.  After  this  the 
funeral  ceremonies  are  performed  with  great  porno.  White  is 
the  colour  for  mourning  in  (many  parts  of)  Madagascar,  as  in 
the  far  East. 

The  tombs  of  these  Roandriana,  which  are  called  lonaka^ 
exactly  the  same  word  as  that  applied  to  the  royal  residences, 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  293 


are  formed,  among  the  Tanosy,  of  two  slabs  of  stone,  one  at 
the  head,  the  other,  not  so  high  as  the  first,  at  the  foot  of  the 
tomb.  A  circular  palisading  surrounds  each  tomb,  and  this  is 
kept  in  repair  by  the  family  of  the  Zafindrasara,  who  alone  are 
allowed  to  enter  it.  The  bodies  of  the  chiefs  are  not  placed  in 
a  coffin,  but  simply  wrapped  in  a  Idmba.  In  former  times  the 
Taimoro  chiefs  were  interred  in  a  house  situated  in  the  village, 
but  this  custom  has  been  abandoned. 

The  commonalty,  the  vbhitra  or  free  people,  are  interred  in  a 
coffin  which  is  either  on  the  very  edge  of  the  roads  (in  Antai- 
moro),  or  in  the  midst  of  the  woods  (in  Antanosy).  The  tombs, 
which  the  people  call  amonoka,  consist  of  a  trench  lined  inside 
with  stones  and  closed  by  a  slab  of  stone  placed  on  the  ground, 
with  a  white  flag  floating  from  a  pole ;  and  these  are  not 
regarded  with  the  same  dread  as  they  are  among  the  other 
coast  peoples.  Funerals  take  place,  as  in  the  case  of  the  chiefs, 
very  shortly  after  death.  When  a  woman  has  become  disgraced 
among  her  family  through  violating  some  of  the  requirements 
of  caste,  she  is  placed  at  the  feet  of  her  relatives,  transversely, 
instead  of  by  their  side,  according  to  the  usual  custom.  The 
men  are  placed  on  the  bier  on  the  right  side,  the  women  on  the 
left  side,  but  the  head  is  always  turned  towards  the  east.  The 
general  belief  is  that  the  liquids  produced  by  the  dissolution  of 
the  body  give  birth,  at  least  in  the  case  of  the  chiefs,  to  a 
colossal  sea-serpent,  which  they  term  Fandnina  or  Fandno.'^ 

^  There  seems  a  remarkable  parallel  to  this  Malagasy  belief  in  the  trans- 
migration of  the  souls  of  chiefs  into  some  animal  in  the  practice  of  the  Samoans, 
as  thus  described  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Turner  :  "  The  unhuricd  occasioned  great 
concern.  ,  .  .  Xor  were  the  Samoans,  like  the  ancient  Romans,  satisfied  with  a 
mere  tumulus  iiiatiis  at  which  to  observe  the  usual  solemnities  ;  they  thought 
it  was  possible  to  obtain  the  soul  of  the  departed  in  some  tangible  transmigrated 
form.  On  the  beach,  near  where  a  person  had  been  drowned,  and  whose  body 
was  supposed  to  have  become  a  porpoise,  or  on  the  battlefield,  where  another 
fell,  might  have  been  seen,  sitting  in  silence,  a  group  of  five  or  six,  and  one  a  few 
yards  before  them  with  a  sheet  of  native  cloth  spread  out  on  the  ground  in  front 
of  him.  Addressing  some  god  of  the  family,  he  said,  *  Oh,  be  kind  to  us  ;  let  us 
obtain  without  difificulty  the  spirit  of  the  young  man  ! '  The  first  thing  that 
happened  to  light  upon  the  sheet  was  supposed  to  be  the  spirit.  If  nothing 
came,  it  was  supposed  that  the  spirit  had  some  ill-will  to  the  person  praying. 


294  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


The  Tanosy  who,  not  being  willing  to  accept  the  Hova  yoke, 
quitted  the  neighbourhood  of  Fort  Dauphin  and  went  to  settle 
in  the  upper  regions  of  the  Onilahy  or  St.  Augustine  river 
(S.W.),  are  still  accustomed  to  bring  their  dead  to  the  land 
where  they  formerly  lived.  Having  waited  until  the  bones  have 
become  divested  of  the  flesh,  they  follow  the  custom  of  the 
Sakalava  and  Mahafaly  tribes,  and  place  the  cofiins  under  a 
heap  of  stones  arranged  in  an  oblong  form.  Some  families 
erect  near  the  villages,  in  remembrance  of  their  dead,  wooden 
posts  or  pillars  bearing  on  the  top  a  human  figure,  or  one  of  a 
bird,  roughly  carved,  and  on  the  different  sides  patterns  more 
or  less  regular,  and  figures  of  animals,  such  as  oxen,  birds,  and 
especially  crocodiles.^  A  scrap  of  white  cloth  flutters  from  the 
end  of  this  post,  to  which  are  also  fastened  the  skulls  and  horns 
of  the  oxen  killed  at  the  time  of  the  funeral. 

The  Tandrby  and  Mahafaly. — The  Tandroy  and  the  Maha 
faly  wrap  the  dead  in  several  Idinba,  and  carry  them  to  the 
cemetery  on  the  day  following  the  decease  in  a  kind  of  hand- 
barrow  or  bed  formed  of  a  framework  of  wood  with  strips 
of  leather  interwoven.  The  corpse,  laid  upon  the  ground,  is 
covered  over  with  earth,  and  over  it  is  constructed  an  oblong 
heap  of  stones.    The  rich  people  have  coffins. 

The  Sakalava. — The  Sakalava  bring  the  dead  out  of  their 
house  immediately  after  decease,  and  place  them,  wrapped 
in  many  Idinba  {even,  not  odd,  in  number),  upon  a  stage  about 
six  feet  high  called  talatdla,  the  head  being  turned  towards  the 

That  person  after  a  time  retired,  and  another  stepped  forward,  addressed  some 
other  god,  and  waited  the  result.  By  and  by  something  came  ;  grasshopper, 
butterfly,  ant,  or  whatever  else  it  might  be,  it  was  carefully  wrapped  up,  taken 
to  the  family,  the  friends  assembled,  and  the  bundle  w^as  buried  with  all 
ceremony,  as  if  it  contained  the  real  spirit  of  the  departed  "  {Samoa  a  Hundred 
Years  Ago  and  Long  Before,  p.  150). — ^J.  S. 

^  One  may  compare  the  figure  of  the  cover  of  a  coffin  from  Marinduque 
(Philippine  Islands),  by  which  it  appears  that,  in  the  further  East,  as  in  Mada- 
gascar, crocodiles  are  carved  on  funeral  memorials.  This  coffin  lid,  as  w'ell  as 
the  two  coffins  which  are  previously  described,  form  part  of  the  collections 
brought  by  M.  Alfred  Marche  to  the  Museum  of  Ethnography  at  the  Trocadero 
(Paris). 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  295 

east,  and  a  piece  of  cloth  being  thrown  over  the  corpse,  on 
which  are  placed  articles  which  must  be  deposited  in  the  bier. 
A  fire  is  lighted  under  the  foot  of  the  corpse,  and  incense 
is  burnt  to  overcome  the  effluvia.  The  women  keep  at  the 
north-east  side  of  the  stage,  and  the  men  at  the  south  and 
south-east.  It  is  customary  for  the  friends  of  the  deceased 
to  bring  small  presents  on  these  occasions.  On  their  arrival 
the  women  squat  down  opposite  the  family,  which  is  gloomily 
silent ;  then,  without  speaking,  they  begin  to  weep  and  sob, 
and  all  the  females  present  join  them  in  this  manifestation  of 
their  sorrow.  Silence  prevails  after  some  minutes  until  the 
arrival  of  a  fresh  party  of  visitors.  These  tdlatdla  are  after- 
wards destroyed,  and  the  pieces  are  thrown  into  water  in  an 
uninhabited  place.  The  corpse  is  carried  to  the  burial-place 
upon  a  kibdny,  or  kind  of  bier  or  hand-barrow,  and  is  then  put, 
lying  on  its  back,  in  a  coffin  formed  of  the  hollowed-out  trunk 
of  a  tree,  which  is  supported  on  four  feet  cut  out  of  the  wood, 
and  the  bottom  of  which  is  pierced  with  an  opening  so  as  to 
allow  the  putrid  matter  to  flow  away.  This  coffin  is  completely 
covered  with  another  tree  trunk,  which  is  a  little  larger  and 
also  hollowed  out.  The  coffin  is  laid  in  a  trench  with  various 
objects  belonging  to  the  deceased,  such  as  bowls,  plates,  boxes, 
&c.,  and  is  covered  up  with  earth.  An  oblong-shaped  heap 
of  stones,  of  which  the  length  runs  east  and  west,  shows  the 
place  occupied  by  the  tomb.  At  the  head  a  small  piece  of 
white  cloth  is  fastened  to  a  pole  like  a  flag.  There  are  some 
families,  especially  that  of  the  Voronioka,  who  do  not  inter 
their  dead  in  a  coffin  ;  they  simply  wrap  them  in  a  large  mat 
and  cover  them  up  with  stones.  The  house  of  the  deceased  is 
abandoned  and  allowed  to  go  to  ruin  ;  no  person  dares  to  touch 
it  under  any  pretence  whatever ;  and  any  one  who,  even  without 
knowing  it,  should  happen  to  use  for  any  purpose  the  materials 
of  such  a  house,  would  be  liable  to  severe  punishment,  some- 
times even  to  death  itself. 

Just  before  death  the  Sakalava  are  accustomed  to  make  public 

I 


296  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

confession  before  their  family  of  the  crimes  and  principal  il 
deeds  which  they  have  committed  during  their  life.  1 

In  order  to  offer  their  prayers  to  the  lolo  (spirits)  of  their 
relatives,  the  Sakalava  do  not  go  to  the  burial-place,  which  they 
hold  in  great  dread,  but  to  the  deceased's  house,  which  has  been 
allowed  to  fall  into  ruin. 

For  princes,  the  ceremonies  are  altogether  different.  The 
corpse,  enclosed  in  an  ox-hide,  remains  exposed  for  two  months, 
either  in  an  encampment  made  for  the  purpose,  under  a  tent, 
where  incense  is  burnt  night  and  day,  or,  in  the  case  of  a  king, 
in  the  midst  of  a  forest,  under  the  care  of  a  particular  family. 
Then  it  is  carried,  with  great  ceremony  and  festivities,  to  a  royal 
cemetery,  which,  in  the  south-west,  is  called  Mahabo  (lit.,  "  that 
which  elevates "),  and  in  the  north-west  Zovibavbla  (lit.,  "  silver 
shrine  ").  But  previously,  if  the  body  is  that  of  a  deceased  king, 
the  royal  relics  or  jiny  ^  are  brought  out  ;  these  consist  of  one  of 
the  vertebrae  of  the  neck,  a  nail,  and  a  lock  of  hair,  and  which, 
placed  in  the  hollow  of  a  molar  tooth  of  a  crocodile,^  are  kept 
with  religious  care  by  his  successor,  together  with  those  of  the 
ancient  kings,  in  a  special  house,  which  is  held  to  be  sacred. 

The  name  which  the  kings  bear  during  their  life  may  no 
longer  be  pronounced  after  their  death;  another  is  substituted 
for  it,  often  of  immoderate  length,  for  it  always  commences  with 
the  word  Andrlana  (lord)  and  finishes  with  the  word  artvo  (thou- 
sand), with  one  or  several  other  words  placed  between  them. 
Thus  Raboky,  who  reigned  at  Baly,  at  no  very  long  time  past, 
is  never  named  by  his  old  subjects  as  other  than  Andrianaha- 
tantiarivo,  or  "  The  lord  who  can  bear  a  thousand  calamities  "  ; 
Tsimanompo,  the  last  Bara  king  of  the  district  of  Isantsa,  is  now 
mentioned  only  under  his  surname  of  Andriant6mponarivo,  or 

^  This  word  j'liiy  is  really  the  Arabic  word  djitiu,  which  signifies,  as  is  well 
known,  a  demon  or  invisible  spirit,  having  supernatural  power. 

^  The  tooth  of  the  crocodile  intended  to  receive  the  ;/«y  must  be  taken  from  a 
living  animal  ;  they  choose  one  of  the  largest  size,  and  bind  it  lirmly  with  strong 
cords  ;  then  they  insert  between  its  jaws,  at  the  desired  place,  a  burning  potato, 
and  after  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  the  coveted  tooth  can  easily  be  extracted.  The 
animal  is  then  set  free. 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  297 

"  The  lord  who  is  master  of  a  thousand."  When  a  king  bears  a 
name  having  the  meaning  of  something  in  common  use,  or 
approaching  that  of  some  word  in  the  vernacular,  this  word  must 
no  longer  be  pronounced  by  any  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country.  Thus,  after  the  death  of  Vinany,  king  of  Menabe, 
whose  name  recalls  a  very  commonly  used  word  all  over  Mada- 
gascar, vildny,  which  means  a  cooking-pot,  the  Antimena  no 
longer  calls  this  indispensable  article  of  household  use  by  any 
other  name  than  by  one  made  for  the  occasion,  V\z,,  fiketrahana 
(lit,  "  the  boiling  utensil ").  Any  one  allowing  himself  to  pro- 
nounce the  former  name  of  a  deceased  king  would  be  considered 
as  a  sorcerer  and  punished  as  such,  that  is  to  say,  by  being  put 
to  death. 

The  Vazhnba. — The  Vazhnba,  who  inhabit  Menabe  on  the 
banks  of  the  Manambolo,  seem  to  be  the  last  relics  of  the 
aborigines  of  the  island  ;  their  funeral  rites  therefore  possess  a 
very  special  interest. 

After  having  washed  the  corpse  and  clothed  it  in  its  finest 
garments,  they  place  it  in  a  squatting  posture  upon  a  kibdny  (a 
bed  or  couch),  as  if  it  were  still  living  ;  and  the  relatives  or 
friends  attend  it  night  and  day,  talking  to  it,  putting  into  its 
hand  a  spoon,  full  of  rice  or  any  other  kind  of  food,  &c. 
Formerly  the  liquids  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  the  flesh 
were  taken  to  a  special  place,  which  was  sprinkled  with  the 
blood  of  an  ox  in  order  to  nourish  the  fandnina  or  snake,  which 
they  believe  to  be  produced  from  these  putrid  liquids.  Since  the 
conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Sakalava  king  Lahifotsy,  these 
customs  have  been  to  some  extent  abandoned,  and  as  soon  as 
the  effluvium  becomes  too  offensive,  the  corpse  is  buried.  But, 
at  the  end  of  about  a  year,  they  take  it  out  of  the  ground  and 
wash  the  bones,  which  are  placed  in  a  new  coffin,  and  are  then 
buried  for  good  and  all. 

The  Behisotra  and  Tandrbna  or  Tdnkodla.^ — The  two  tribes 

^  Behisotra  is  probably  a  mistake  for  Bemihisatra.  The  Tandrona  live  in  the 
north-central  part  of  the  island  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mandritsara,  where  they 


298  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

who  inhabit  the  north-west  coast  between  Pasandava  Bay  and 
the  Bay  of  Bembatoka  have  the  same  funeral  customs  as  the 
Tankarana.  So  we  learn  from  a  letter  recently  written  by  M. 
Vian,  a  naval  surgeon,  who  was  in  the  Bay  of  Mahajamba,  and 
had  the  opportunity  of  visiting  one  of  their  cemeteries,  which  is 
a  natural  cave,  in  which  he  found  several  coffins  about  4  feet 
long  by  I  foot  2  inches  wide.  It  is  certain  that  the  Sakalava 
chiefs  who  have  settled  in  the  north-west  and  the  north  of 
Madagascar  have  not  exerted  on  the  habits  of  the  inhabitants 
of  that  part  of  the  island  (Ankoala  and  Ankarana)  so  great  an 
influence  as  they  have  in  the  west  (Fiherenana,  Menabe  and 
Ambongo). 

The  Sihanaka. — The  Sihanaka  take  secretly  away,  far  from 
their  villages,  those  who  are  ill,  and  of  whose  recovery  they  are 
hopeless,  and  place  them  in  a  solitary  spot,  where  no  one  goes 
but  the  person  appointed  to  attend  them.  After  death,  the 
corpse  is  brought  into  the  house,  where  it  lies  in  state  for  a 
certain  time,  according  to  the  wealth  of  the  deceased  and  the 
number  of  oxen  killed.  After  these  ceremonies,  the  house  is 
abandoned,  and  the  corpse  is  interred.  The  family  erect  to 
the  memory  of  the  deceased  a  tall  pole  forked  at  the  summit, 
like  a  pair  of  ox-horns.  This  is  called  jh'o,  and  is  placed  on 
the  side  of  a  road  near  the  place  of  interment. 

The  Bezanozdno. — The  burial  monuments  of  the  Bezanozano 
are  composed  of  a  single  stone  or  slab  erected  at  the  head  and 
to  the  east  of  the  trench  where  the  coffin  is  deposited,  and  of 
other  stones,  to  which  are  fixed,  on  stakes,  the  skulls  of  the  oxen 
killed  during  the  funeral  ceremonies.  Sometimes  tin  boxes  or 
mats  which  belonged  to  the  deceased  are  also  placed  on  these 
stones. 

The  Tandla.^ — The  free  Tanala,  called  also  Hova,  do  not  inter 

first  settled  after  leaving  their  original  Sakalava  home  in  Menabe.  Both  the 
Bemihisatra  and  the  Tandrona  are  merely  branches  or  sub-tribes  of  the  Sakalava, 
the  Tandrona  having  a  certain  amount  of  African  blood  in  them.  Another 
important  branch  of  the  Sakalava  in  this  part  of  the  island  is  the  Bemazava. — J.  S. 
*  The  word  Tanala  is  merely  a  descriptive  term,  there  being  no  one  tribe 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  299 

their  dead  until  they  have  lain  in  state  for  a  month  or  so.  For 
three  days  they  leave  the  corpse  uncovered,  but  after  this  they 
wrap  it  in  red  cloths  {lainbd)  and  place  it  in  a  coffin,  which  they 
do  not  carry  to  the  cemetery  until  the  completion  of  the  month. 
The  liquid  products  of  decomposition  flow  upon  the  earthen 
floor  of  the  house  and  are  simply  covered  over  with  earth. 
During  all  the  time  of  the  lying-in-state,  the  surviving  partner 
(husband  or  wife)  sleeps  in  the  house  as  if  his  or  her  spouse 
was  still  living.  The  custom  obtains  also  among  the  Betsi- 
misaraka,  the  Tanosy,  and  other  tribes.  The  coffin  is  deposited 
in  a  solitary  place  in  the  forest,  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
palisade  of  tree  trunks  which  hide  its  cover. 

The  Andfiana  or  chiefs,  whose  ancestors  are  of  foreign 
(Arab)  extraction,  are,  on  the  contrary,  interred  on  the  very 
day  of  their  death.  The  coffin,  with  a  lid  in  the  shape  of  a 
roof,  and  on  which  is  fixed  a  pair  of  horns,  is  carried  into  the 
dense  forest  and  placed  under  a  kind  of  shed.  h.n  image,  sus- 
pended in  a  corner  of  the  house  where  the  death  took  place,, 
receives  for  six  weeks  all  the  signs  of  grief  and  marks  of  regret 
from  the  people,  after  which  it  is  thrown  into  the  nearest  river 
with  great  ceremony.  The  royal  cemetery  is  visited  from  time 
to  time  in  order  to  renew  the  coffins  when  they  fall  into  decay,, 
and  also  to  change  the  lainba  in  which  the  bones  are  enveloped. 

The  Vorhno. — The  Vorimo,  who  live  at  some  distance  from 
the  sea  between  the  rivers  Mangoro  and  Mahasora,  keep  the 
dead  in  their  houses  for  two  or  three  weeks,  and  with  all  their 
weeping,  they  feast,  eating  and  drinking  to  excess.  The  corpse,, 
wrapped  in  a  number  of  lainba  and  mats,  is  then  taken  to  the 
tomb,  which  is  situated  in  a  solitary  place  in  the  forest,  and  is 
composed  of  a  little  enclosure  of  stones,  in  a  rectangular  form,, 
of  which  the  interior  is  entirely  filled  with  earth. 

In  order  to  offer  prayers  to  their  departed  relatives,  the 

known  by  that  name.  It  signifies  forest-dwellers,  and  includes  several  different 
tribes.  The  inhabitants  of  the  south-east-central  parts  of  Madagascar  are  doubt- 
less meant  here,  as  these  are  often  specially  though  erroneously  referred  to  by 
Europeans  as  the  Tanala. — ^J,  S. 


300  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Vorimo,  like  the  Tanala,  prepare  near  their  villages  a  kind 
of  altar,  formed  of  three  or  four  large  stones,  on  which  they 
place  their  offerings  of  rice  and  other  things. 

Where  a  family  has  been  unable  to  recover  the  corpse  of  one 
of  its  members,  or  cannot  bring  it  to  its  ancestral  home,  they 
erect  to  its  memory  a  slab  or  pillar  of  stone,  which  is  called 
TsdngaifibdtOy  (lit.,  "  standing  stone  ").  They  also  place  upright 
stones  at  the  spots  where,  during  the  funeral  ceremonies,  the 
corpse  had  been  temporarily  deposited. 

The  IkbngoJ — The  Ikongo  do  not  erect  any  tombs;  they 
inter  their  dead  in  the  forest,  and  are  content  with  marking  the 
place  by  the  help  of  a  notch  cut  in  the  nearest  tree.  Their 
funerals  are  unaccompanied  with  cries  or  weeping. 

The  Hova. — The  graves  of  the  Hova  differ  in  a  very  marked 
way  from  those  of  which  we  have  spoken.  They  are,  in  fact, 
family  caves  or  vaults,  large  subterranean  chambers,  placed 
east  and  west,  of  which  the  soil  forms  the  base,  and  whose  sides 
consist  of  large  slabs  of  stone,  closed  over  at  the  top  by  an 
enormous  one.  They  are  entered  by  a  doorway  cut  out  of  the 
stone  wall  on  the  west  side  of  the  tomb.  The  corpses  are 
deposited,  wrapped  up  in  Idniba  and  mats,  some  upon  the 
ground,  and  others  upon  stone  shelves  which  are  fixed  hori- 
zontally all  round  (or  rather  on  the  three  sides  of)  the  mortuary 
chamber.  Those  of  the  head  of  the  family  and  of  his  wife  are 
placed  along  the  wall  opposite  the  entrance,  i.e.,  on  the  east 
side  ;  while  those  of  his  family  are  laid  on  the  sides  to  the  north 
and  south.  Over  the  cave,  the  top  of  which  is  always  raised  a 
little  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  there  is  a  structure,  almost 
square  in  shape,  formed  of  four  walls  of  stones  laid  without 
mortar,  the  interior  of  which  is  filled  with  earth,  while  the  top 
is  often  covered  with  small  pieces  of  quartz,  which  are  some- 
times fetched  from  a  distance. 

*  Ikongo  is  really  only  the  name  of  a  mountain.  The  inhabitants  living  in 
its  neighbourhood  are  called  Sandrabe  (?),  and  are  merely  a  sub-tribe  of  what 
Europeans  call  the  Tanala. — J.  S. 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  3OI 

The  building  of  their  tombs  is  considered  by  the  Hova  as 
a  very  important  undertaking.  All  the  relatives,  friends,  and 
slaves  are  called  together  and  leave  all  their  other  occupations. 
It  is  indeed  no  easy  matter  to  bring,  often  from  a  consider- 
able distance,  the  five  enormous  slabs  which  are  to  form  the 
walls  and  roof  of  the  vault.  In  order  to  detach  these  from  the 
bed  of  rock,  they  commence  by  choosing  a  mass  of  granite 
or  gneiss  (this  stone  being  found  extensively  throughout  the 
central  parts  of  the  island),  which  naturally  divides  into  layers 
of  a  few  inches  in  thickness.^  Here  they  mark  out  the  shape 
and  dimensions  of  the  slabs  required  by  means  of  straight  lines 
of  dried  cow-dung,  which  are  set  on  fire.  When  the  outline  of 
the  slab  is  thoroughly  heated,  cold  water  is  dashed  over  it, 
producing  a  crack  all  along  the  lines  ;  there  is  then  nothing 
further  to  do  but  to  raise  the  stone  by  means  of  levers,  and  to 
drag  it  to  the  place  where  the  tomb  is  to  be  constructed  ;  this 
is  the  longest  and  most  difficult  part  of  the  whole  business,  for 
it  may  be  several  hundred,  sometimes  several  thousand,  yards 
over  which  these  heavy  stones  have  to  be  dragged,  across  hills 
and  valleys.  This  work  is  an  occasion  of  feasting  and  rejoicing, 
during  which  many  oxen  are  killed,  and  other  expenses  incurred 
in  feeding  those  who  assist.  The  Hova  tombs  are  always 
erected  in  such  a  position  as  to  attract  attention  ;  sometimes 
they  are  even  placed  opposite  the  house  of  the  head  of  the 
family. 

Besides  the  tombs  properly  so  called,  throughout  the  whole 
province  of  Im^rina  there  are  to  be  seen  pillars  or  slabs  of  stone 
erected  in  memory--  of  deceased  relatives,  and  which  are  called 
Tsdngambdto  (lit.,  "  standing  stone ")  or  Fdhatsiarbvana  (lit.,. 
"  that  which  makes  remembered  "). 

The  Hova  do  not  keep  the  dead  in  their  houses  as  long  as 

most  of  the  other  Malagasy,  and  they  do  not  usually  place 

^  This  has  frequently  been  stated,  but  it  is  incorrect.  The  slabs  are  mostly 
taken  from  rock  masses  which  show  no  divisional  planes  whatsoever,  and  often 
run  directly  across  the  grain  (foliation)  of  the  rock  ;  the  splitting  is  due  simply  to 
contraction  when  cold  water  is  thrown  upon  them  after  heating. — J.  S. 


302  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

them  in  coffins ;  they  wrap  them  in  reddish-brown  lauiba,  often 
in  considerable  numbers  ;  and  they  carry  them  to  the  tomb  on 
a  faj^afara,  or  kind  of  bier.  In  former  times  they  placed  upon 
the  tomb  or  all  round  it — as  is  still  the  practice  of  the  Betsileo, 
the  Bezanozano,  the  Sihanaka  and  other  tribes — the  skulls  of 
the  oxen  killed  at  the  time  of  funerals  ;  but  this  custom  is  now 
abandoned. 

On  returning  from  a  funeral,  the  relatives  who  have  led  the 
■mourning  wash  themselves  and  purify  the  clothes  they  wore  by 
steeping  a  silver  coin  in  some  water  over  which  they  have 
invoked  the  blessing  of  God  by  prayers.  At  the  end  of  the 
meal  which  terminates  the  funeral  ceremonies,  all  those  who 
have  taken  part  receive  also  the  dfana,  or  sprinkling  with  this 
same  holy  water. 

The  mourning  observances  are  rather  strict.  The  nearest 
relatives  allow  their  hair  to  be  dishevelled.  The  women  wear 
no  jacket  {akanjd)  or  skirt,  wrapping  themselves  only  in  the 
lainba.  The  men  go  without  hats  and  let  their  beards  grow  ; 
they  wash  only  the  tips  of  their  fingers,  and  their  clothing 
must  be  soiled  and  dirty.  Dancing  and  singing  are  forbidden. 
At  the  close  of  the  mourning  the  relatives  take  part  in  a  meal, 
at  which  is  observed  the  afana,  or  purification  of  all  concerned, 
by  the  sprinkling  upon  them  of  the  water  consecrated  to  God. 

The  mourning  ceremonies  are  much  more  severe  at  the 
decease  of  the  sovereign.  All  the  people,  both  male  and 
female,  must  shave  their  heads,  with  the  exception  of  the  heir 
to  the  crown  and  a  few  favoured  individuals.  Throughout  an 
•entire  year  no  one  can  sleep  upon  a  bed  or  sit  upon  a  chair  ; 
they  must  sleep  and  sit  upon  the  ground.  All  mirrors  must  be 
turned  with  their  face  towards  the  wall,  for  it  is  not  allowed 
during  all  the  time  of  mourning  for  any  one  to  look  at  them- 
selves in  a  glass.  All  labour,  except  necessary  agriculture,  is 
stopped. 

From  time  to  time  the  Hova  families  practise  a  ceremony 
Avhich  they  call  inaviadika  (lit,  "  turning  over"),  and  which  con- 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  303 

sists  in  going  to  their  tombs  to  turn  the  corpses  on  one  side,  so 
that  they  may  not  be  fatigued  by  remaining  too  long  in  one 
position.  This  ceremony  is  usually  observed  during  the  year 
following  the  death  of  one  of  the  members  of  the  family. 
This  is  a  time  of  feasting  and  rejoicing ;  all  the  relatives  are 
invited,  and,  dressed  in  their  best  clothing,  with  music  going 
before  the  procession,  repair  to  the  family  tomb  in  order  to  visit 
their  dead  relations,  whom  they  turn  round,  as  above  described, 
and  wrap  up  in  new  lainba.  One  day  I  saw  passing,  with 
violins  and  drums,  a  procession  which  was  moving  the  bones  of 
a  Hova  woman  of  rank  from  the  tomb  of  her  last  husband  but 
one  into  that  of  her  last  husband,  where  she  would  finally  rest. 
Throughout  several  years  she  had  been  made  to  visit  these  two 
tombs  alternately,  keeping  company  with  each  of  her  deceased 
spouses  for  several  months  ;  they  were  now  bringing  her  from 
the  tomb  of  her  first  husband,  because  the  wife  who  had  replaced 
her  in  the  affections  of  the  deceased  had  died  and  required 
her  place. 

Many  of  these  customs,  although  practised  until  the  last 
few  years,  are  completely  disappearing  under  the  influence  of 
civilisation  and  Christianity. 

The  Betsileo. — The  Betsileo  bury  their  dead  in  subterranean 
caves,  which  are  not,  like  those  of  the  Hova,  lined  with  stone, 
but  are  simply  excavated  in  the  ground  at  a  depth  which  is 
often  considerable,  and  to  which  access  is  gained  by  a  long 
trench,  which  they  are  obliged  to  open  at  each  interment,  and 
which  is  filled  up  again  afterwards.  The  corpses  are  placed 
upon  mats  spread  on  the  ground,  and  are  covered  with  a  simple 
piece  of  cloth.  Rich  people  have  coffins  with  lids  in  the  shape 
of  a  roof,  and  covered  with  coloured  stuffs. 

The  exterior  monument  is  not  always  placed  exactly  above 
the  grave,  and  varies  somewhat  in  character.  Sometimes,  as  in 
Imerina,  it  is  formed  of  four  walls  from  four  to  eight  yards  in 
length,  and  about  four  and  a  half  to  five  feet  high,  but  it  differs 
in  this  point :  the  interior  is  not  filled  with  earth,  and  on  the 


304  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

banks  of  the  Matsiatra  a  tree — hasina  or  fano  (species  of 
Draccena  and  Piptadenia  respectively),  or  some  other  kind — is 
planted  in  the  middle.  Between  the  rivers  Mania  and  Matsiatra 
these  funeral  monuments  are  surrounded  and  surmounted  by  a 
number  of  wooden  posts  more  or  less  ornamented  with  patterns 
cut  in  relief,  and  joined  together  with  transverse  bars  also 
carved  ;  the  corner  posts  are  terminated  by  an  ornament  in 
the  form  of  a  vase.  In  other  cases,  the  memorial  is  a  simple 
pillar  of  dressed  granite,  measuring  from  eighteen  inches  to  two 
feet  square,  and  from  six  to  nine  feet  high,  and  carrying  on  its 
top  a  band  of  iron,  bristling  with  points,  to  which  are  affixed 
the  skulls  and  horns  of  cattle  ;  or  it  is  surrounded  at  the  angles 
with  carved  wooden  posts,  fixed  together  with  transverse  pieces 
of  wood.  In  some  cases  it  is  reduced  to  a  single  post,  orna- 
mented with  carving,  and  surmounted  by  the  usual  vase-shaped 
finial,  and  with  a  wooden  stage,  to  which  are  fixed  the  bleached 
skulls  from  the  oxen  killed  at  the  funeral  ceremonies. 

Some  families  do  not  place  their  dead  in  the  ground  ;  they 
deposit  them  in  natural  grottos,  or  in  caves  hollowed  out  by 
hand,  on  the  perpendicular  faces  of  certain  mountains,  places  to 
which  no  access  can  be  gained  except  by  very  lofty  scaffolding. 

The  Andriana  or  nobles  among  the  Betsileo  are  not  interred 
for  some  time  after  their  death.  About  the  third  day,  when 
the  body  is  already  swollen,  it  is  rolled  upon  planks  so  as  to 
thoroughly  soften  the  flesh  ;  and  on  the  following  day  the 
relatives  fasten  it  tightly  to  the  central  post  of  the  house  with 
thongs  cut  from  the  hides  of  the  oxen  killed  for  the  funeral 
ceremonies,  and  then  make  a  large  incision  in  each  heel.  Large 
earthen  pots  are  then  placed  under  the  feet  to  receive  the  putrid 
liquid  which  escapes  from  the  decomposition  of  the  body. 
These  pots  are  examined  with  the  greatest  care,  for  the  corpse 
cannot  be  removed  from  the  house,  and  no  one  can  work  in 
the  fields,  until  a  certain  small  worm  or  maggot  has  made  its 
appearance  in  one  of  the  vessels.  They  wait  sometimes  for  two 
and  even  three  months  before  being  able  to  proceed  with  the 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  305 

interment.  The  vessel  is  shut  up  in  the  grave  together  with  the 
body,  and  they  arrange  a  long  bamboo,  one  end  of  which  is 
plunged  into  the  liquid,  the  other  being  flush  with  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  in  order  that  the  maggot,  after  its  transformation 
into  a  serpent  or  fanano^  may  be  able  to  come  out  of  the  tomb 
and  go  and  visit  its  relatives  ;  for  the  Betsileo  believe  that  the 
soul  of  the  departed  reappears  under  the  form  of  a  reptile. 
Formerly  it  was  not  in  the  case  of  the  nobles  only  that  these 
repulsive  ceremonies  were  observed,  but  now  they  are  entirely 
confined  to  them. 

The  Bara. — It  appears  that  the  Bara  lay  their  dead  entirely 
naked  upon  the  ground  and  cover  them  over  with  stones  ;  their 
tombs  are  not  more  than  from  a  foot  to  eighteen  inches  in 
height.  Certain  families,  among  others  those  who  inhabit  the 
Isalo  chain  of  mountains,  also  place  them  quite  naked,  either  in 
caverns,  or  among  rocks,  with  the  skulls  of  the  oxen  killed 
during  the  funeral  ceremonies  ;  for  a  third  part,  and  often  even 
a  half,  of  the  oxen  belonging  to  the  deceased  are  killed  on  these 
occasions.  The  Rev.  J.  Richardson  found  in  the  western  part  of 
the  Bara  country  posts  of  eight  or  nine  feet  high,  and  bearing 
at  their  summits  rude  female  figures  of  the  natural  size,  which 
were  probably  placed  as  memorials  of  persons  who  had  died  at 
a  distant  place. 

Such  are  the  principal  funeral  customs  of  the  Malagasy. 
We  can  see  from  the  sum  of  the  facts  I  have  brought  together 
that  there  is  a  close  resemblance  between  the  burial  customs  of 
the  Malagasy  and  those  of  the  Indonesians,  which  afford  one 
more  proof,  if  any  were  necessary,  of  the  emigration  into 
Madagascar  of  some  of  the  peoples  of  the  extreme  East. 

Funeral  Ceremonies  at  the  Burial  of  a  Hova  King 
{Radama  I.) 

The  foregoing  paper,  translated  by  permission  from  an 
article  by  Mons.  A.  Grandidier,  may,  I  think,  be  appropriately 
concluded  by   the   following  account,   written   by   an  eye- 

21 


306  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

witness,  of  the  remarkable  ceremonial  employed  at  the  burial 
of  a  Hova  sovereign  during  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century : — 

On  Sunday,  the  third  day  after  the  announcement  of  the 
death  of  Radama  (August  4,  1828),  there  was  a  large  kabdry, 
or  national  assembly,  held  in  a  fine  open  space  in  the  city,  on 
the  west  side  of  the  hill  on  which  Antananarivo  stands.  In  this 
space  were  assembled  from  25,000  to  30,000  persons,  seated  in 
groups  according  to  the  districts  to  which  they  belonged. 

At  the  close  of  this  kabary  it  was  proclaimed  that,  according 
to  the  custom  of  the  country,  as  a  token  of  mourning,  every 
person  in  the  kingdom  of  every  age  must  shave  or  cut  off 
closely  the  hair  of  their  heads,  and  whosoever  should  be  found 
with  their  heads  unshaved,  after  three  days  from  the  proclama- 
tion, should  be  liable  to  be  put  to  death.  Also,  that  no  person 
whatsoever  should  do  any  kind  of  work  (except  those  who 
should  be  employed  in  preparing  the  royal  tomb,  coffin,  8z:c.) ; 
no  one  should  presume  to  sleep  upon  a  bed,  but  on  the  floor 
only,  during  the  time  of  mourning.  No  woman,  however  high 
her  rank,  the  queen  only  excepted,  should  wear  her  Idmba  or 
cloth  above  her  shoulders,  but  must,  during  the  same  period, 
go  always  with  her  shoulders,  chest,  and  head  uncovered. 

During  the  interval  between  this  Sunday  and  the  12th 
instant,  the  mournfully  silent  appearance  of  the  city,  though 
tens  of  thousands  of  persons  were  constantly  crowding  through 
the  streets — some  dragging  huge  pieces  of  granite  or  beams  of 
timber,  or  carrying  red  earth  in  baskets  on  their  heads,  for  the 
construction  of  the  tomb  ;  others,  and  those  chiefly  females, 
going  with  naked  heads  and  shoulders,  to  the  palace  to  mourn, 
or  else  returning  from  that  place  after  staying  there  as  mourners 
perhaps  twelve  hours,  was  exceedingly  impressive.  The  air  of 
deep  melancholy  on  the  countenances  of  all,  and  the  audible 
moanings  of  the  multitudes  who  filled  the  courts  of  the  palace 
and  the  adjoining  streets,  quite  affected  us,  and  produced  the 
conviction  that  the  grief  was  real  and  deep  for  one  whom  they 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  307 

regarded  as  their  benefactor  and  friend,  and  as  the  best  king 
that  Madagascar  had  ever  known.  The  wives  of  the  principal 
chiefs  from  the  neighbouring  districts  were  carried  to  and  from 
the  place  of  mourning,  each  on  the  back  of  a  stout  man,  just  in 
the  manner  boys  at  school  are  accustomed  to  carry  one  another : 
the  lady  having  her  person,  from  the  waist  to  the  feet,  covered 
with  her  white  lamba^  or  cloth. 

On  Sunday,  the  nth,  her  Majesty  sent  to  us  to  say  that  we 
might  be  present  the  day  after,  to  assist  at  the  funeral  cere- 
monies ;  and  that  General  Brady  would,  at  eight  a.m.,  receive 
us  I  at  his  house  and  conduct  us  to  the  palace.  Accordingly, 
at  eight  on  the  12th  we  attended,  when  General  Brady  and 
Prince  Correllere  conducted  us  through  the  crowded  streets  of 
mourners,  through  the  guards  of  soldiers,  and  through  the  still 
more  crowded  courts  of  the  palace,  which  were  thronged  chiefly 
by  women  and  girls,  couched  down,  or  prostrate  in  many 
instances,  making  audible  lamentations. 

There  are  several  courts,  with  one  or  more  palaces  in  each, 
separated  from  each  other  by  high  wooden  railings  ;  and  the 
whole  of  the  courts  and  palaces  are  surrounded  by  a  heavy 
railing  of  great  height,  twenty-five  feet,  including  a  dwarf  stone 
wall  on  which  the  wooden  railing  is  fixed.  The  whole  extent 
of  this  railing  was  covered  with  white  cloth,  as  were  also  the 
oldest  and  most  sacred  of  the  palaces.  The  favourite  palace 
of  Radama,  in  which  he  died,  and  where  in  fact  the  body  then 
lay,  is  called  the  Silver  Palace ;  it  is  a  square  building,  of  two 
floors,  and  two  handsome  verandahs  running  round  it.  This 
palace  is  named  the  Silver  Palace  on  account  of  its  being 
ornamented,  from  the  ground  to  the  roof,  by  the  profusion  of 
large  flat-headed  silver  nails  and  plates  of  the  same  metal.  The 
roof  of  this  palace  (as  indeed  of  all  the  principal  houses),  a 
very  high-pitched  roof,  is  so  high,  that  from  the  top  of  the  w^all 

^  George  Bennet,  Esq.,  one  of  a  deputation  from  the  London  Missionary 
Society,  and  then  completing  here  in  Madagascar  their  visitation  of  the  various 
stations  occupied  by  the  Society  in  different  parts  of  the  world. — J.  S. 


308  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

to  the  ridge  is  as  great  a  distance  as  from  the  foundation  to  the 
top  of  the  wall  supporting  the  roof  We  found  it  covered  from 
the  roof  to  the  ground  with  hangings  of  rich  satins,  velvets, 
silks,  their  native  costly  silk  Idmbas,  &c.,  and  all  the  vast  roof 
was  covered  with  the  finest  English  scarlet  broadcloth. 

In  front  of  this  palace  had  been  erected  a  most  splendid 
pavilion,  surrounded  by  highly-decorated  pillars,  which  were 
wrapped  round  with  various  coloured  silks,  satins,  &c.  The 
pavilion  was  ten  feet  square,  raised  on  pillars  also  richly  orna- 
mented. A  platform  of  wood  was  thrown  over  upon  the 
pillars,  and  above  this  platform  hung,  supported  by  one  trans- 
verse pole,  an  immense  canopy  or  pall  of  the  richest  gold 
brocade,  with  stripes  of  blue  satin  and  scarlet  cloth,  the  whole 
bordered  by  a  broad  gold  lace  and  finished  by  a  deep  gold 
fringe.  All  the  arrangements  were  in  good  taste,  and  formed 
together  a  most  brilliant  spectacle. 

We  had  nearly  reached  the  Silver  Palace  when  we  were 
stopped,  it  being  announced  that  the  corpse  was  at  that  moment 
about  to  be  brought  out  to  be  conveyed  to  the  more  sacred 
White  Palace  previous  to  its  being  entombed.  We  immediately 
saw  about  sixteen  or  twenty  females  brought  out  of  the  apart- 
ment where  the  corpse  lay,  each  lady  on  the  back  of  her  stout 
bearer,  weeping  and  lamenting  aloud  ;  these  were  the  queens 
and  princesses  of  the  royal  family,  and  formed  the  first  part  of 
the  procession  from  one  to  the  other  palace  ;  our  place  was 
appointed  immediately  after  the  queens,  but  it  was  with  diffi- 
culty we  could  get  along,  many  females  having  thrown  them- 
selves on  the  path  which  was  to  have  been  kept  open.  The 
mourners  had  done  this  that  the  corpse  might  pass  over  them, 
and  we  in  fact  were  many  times  under  the  necessity  of  treading 
upon  their  prostrate  persons.  The  corpse  was  carried  into  the 
White  Palace  that  it  might,  in  this  more  sacred  place,  be 
stripped  of  its  old  clothes  and  clothed  with  new,  and  also  that  it 
might  be  placed  in  a  wooden  coffin.  In  this  palace  we  were 
honoured  with  a  station  not  far  from  the  corpse,  which  was 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  309 

being  fanned  by  about  sixteen  or  twenty  young  ladies,  daughters 
of  principal  chiefs. 

At  eight,  on  the  morning  of  Tuesday,  we  were  again  at  the 
palace,  and  were  conducted  by  General  Brady  and  Prince 
Correllere  through  the  crowds  of  mourners,  indeed  over  some  of 
them,  as  well  as  over  ten  fine  favourite  bulls  of  the  late  king  ; 
these  lay  directly  in  our  path,  and  we  could  not  help  treading 
on  them.  The  paths  were  all  covered  with  blue  or  white  cloth 
of  the  country.  The  corpse  had  been  transferred  at  the  close 
of  the  day  before  to  a  huge  coffin  or  chest,  of  their  heaviest  and 
most  valuable  wood.  The  coffin  was  then  carried  from  this 
White  Palace  back  to  the  Silver  Palace  in  solemn  procession, 
the  queens,  &c.,  following  next  the  coffin,  and  we  succeeded 
them ;  some  of  the  Europeans  had  accepted  the  honour  of 
assisting  to  carry  the  coffin,  which  was  a  tremendous  weight 
judging  from  appearance.  I  declined  the  honour,  charging 
myself  with  the  care  of  our  missionary  ladies. 

On  again  reaching  the  Silver  Palace  the  coffin  was  not  taken 
in,  but  raised  upon  the  wooden  platform  over  the  pavilion,  over 
which  the  splendid  pall  or  canopy  of  gold  was  drawn,  which 
concealed  it  entirely  from  view.  In  this  pavilion,  under  the 
platform  (which  was  raised  about  seven  feet),  upon  mats  placed 
on  the  ground,  the  royal  females  seated  or  threw  themselves  in 
seeming  agonies  of  woe,  which  continued  through  the  day  ;  and 
at  sunset,  when  the  entombment  was  taking  place,  their  lamen- 
tations were  distressing  in  the  extreme.  All  the  day  great 
multitudes  had  been  employed  in  preparing  the  tomb,  which 
was  in  the  court  and  not  far  from  the  pavilion.  This  tomb,  at 
which  tens  of  thousands  had  been  incessantly  working  ever 
since  the  announcement  of  the  king's  death — either  in  fetching 
earth  or  granite  stones  or  timber,  or  else  in  cutting  or  fitting  the 
stones,  timber,  &c. — consisted  of  a  huge  mound  of  a  square 
figure,  built  up  of  clods  and  earth,  surrounded  or  faced  by 
masses  of  granite,  brought  and  cut  and  built  up  by  the  people. 

The  height  of  this  mound  was  upwards  of  twenty  feet ; 


310  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

about  sixty  feet  square  at  the  base,  gradually  decreasing  as  it 
rose,  until  at  the  top  it  was  about  twenty  feet  square.  The 
actual  tomb,  or  place  to  receive  the  coffin  and  the  treasures 
destined  to  accompany  the  corpse,  was  a  square  well  or  recess, 
in  the  upper  part  of  this  mound  or  pyramid,  about  ten  feet 
cube,  built  of  granite  and  afterwards  being  lined,  floored,  and 
ceiled  with  their  most  valuable  timbers. 

At  the  foot  of  this  mound  had  been  standing  most  of  the 
day  the  large  and  massy  silver  coffin^  destined  to  receive  the  royal 
corpse.  This  coffin  was  about  eight  feet  long,  three  feet  and  a 
half  deep,  and  the  same  in  width ;  it  was  formed  of  silver  plates 
strongly  riveted  together  with  nails  of  the  same  metal  ;  all 
made  from  Spanish  dollars :  twelve  thousand  dollars  were 
employed  in  its  construction.  About  six  in  the  evening  this 
coffin  was  by  the  multitude  heaved  up  one  of  the  steep  sides  of 
the  mound  to  the  top  and  placed  in  the  tomb  or  chamber. 
Immense  quantities  of  treasures  of  various  kinds  were  deposited 
in  or  about  the  coffin,  belonging  to  his  late  Majesty,  consisting 
especially  of  such  things  as  during  his  life  he  most  prized.  Ten 
thousand  hard  dollars  were  laid  in  the  silver  coffin  for  him  to  lie 
upon  ;  and  either  inside,  or  chiefly  outside  the  coffin,  were 
placed  or  cast  all  his  rich  habiliments,  especially  military. 
There  were  eighty  suits  of  very  costly  British  uniforms,  hats 
and  feathers ;  a  golden  helmet,  gorgets,  epaulettes,  sashes, 
gold  spurs,  very  valuable  swords,  daggers,  spears  (two  of 
gold),  beautiful  pistols,  muskets,  fowling-pieces,  watches,  rings, 
brooches,  and  trinkets  ;  his  whole  superb  sideboard  of  silver 
plate,  and  large  and  splendid  solid  gold  cup,  with  many  others 
presented  to  him  by  the  King  of  England  ;  great  quantities  of 
costly  silks,  satins,  fine  clothes,  very  valuable  silk  lambas  of 
Madagascar,  &c. 

We  were  fatigued  and  pained  by  the  sight  of  such  quantities 
of  precious  things  consigned  to  a  tomb.  As  ten  of  his  fine 
favourite  bulls  had  been  slaughtered  yesterday,  so  six  of  his 
finest  horses  w^ere  speared  to-day  and  lay  in  the  courtyard  near 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  MALAGASY.  311 

the  tomb,  and  to-morrow  six  more  are  to  be  killed.  When  to 
all  these  extravagant  expenses  are  added  the  twenty  thousand 
oxen,  worth  here  five  Spanish  dollars  each  (which  have  been 
given  to  the  people  and  used  by  them  for  food  during  the 
preparation  for  and  at  the  funeral),  the  missionaries  conjecture 
that  the  expense  of  the  funeral  cannot  be  less  than  sixty  thou- 
sand pounds  sterling.  All  agree  that  though  these  people  are 
singularly  extravagant  in  the  expenses  they  incur  at  their 
funerals,  yet  there  never  was  a  royal  funeral  so  expensive  as 
this,  for  no  sovereign  in  this  country  ever  possessed  one-fifth 
of  his  riches. 

The  silver  coffin  having  been  placed  in  the  tomb,  the  corpse 
in  the  wooden  one  was  conveyed  by  weeping  numbers  from  the 
top  of  the  platform  over  the  pavilion  to  the  top  of  the  pyramid 
and  placed  beside  the  chamber.  Here  the  wooden  coffin  was 
broken  up,  and  the  corpse  exposed  to  those  near.  At  this  time 
the  royal  female  mourners,  who  had  been  all  day  uttering  their 
moans  in  the  pavilion,  now  crawled  up  the  side  of  the  pyramid 
to  take  a  last  view  of  the  remains.  They  were  most  of  them 
obliged  to  be  forced  away ;  their  lamentations  were  now  very 
loud  and  truly  distressing  to  hear.  The  expressions  used  by 
them  in  lamentation  were  some  of  them  translated  for  us ;  the 
following  was  chiefly  the  substance  : — "  Why  did  you  go  away 
and  leave  me  here  ?  Oh  !  come  again  and  fetch  me  to  you  !  " 
The  body  was  transferred  from  the  coffin  of  wood  to  that  of 
silver.  Those  who  were  engaged  in  this  service  seemed  to 
suffer  from  the  effluvia,  though  many  were  constantly  employed 
sprinkling  eau-de-cologne.  When  the  transfer  had  taken  place 
the  wooden  coffin  was  thrown  piecemeal  into  the  tomb. 

During  the  whole  of  this  day,  while  the  chamber  in  the  tomb 
was  being  prepared,  the  King's  two  bands  of  music,  with  drums 
and  fifes,  &c.,  were  in  the  court  and  played  almost  unceasingly, 
relieving  each  other  by  turns.  The  tunes  were  such  as  Radama 
most  delighted  in — many  of  the  peculiar  and  favourite  airs  of 
England,  Scotland  and  Ireland,  with  waltzes,  marches,  &c. 


312 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


During  intervals  cannon  and  musketry  were  fired  outside  of 
the  courts  of  the  palace,  and  answered  by  musketry  from  the 
numerous  soldiers  inside  of  the  courts. 

On  the  whole,  while  this  funeral  of  Radama  was  the  most 
extravagant,  it  was  the  most  splendid  and  orderly  thing  that 
could  be  conceived  amongst  such  an  uncivilised  people. 

[Extracted  from  Voyages  and  Travels  Round  the  World,  by  the  Rev. 
Daniel  Tyerman  and  George  Bennet,  Esq.  London,  1840,  2nd  ed.,  pp. 
284-286.] 


CHAPTER  XV. 


DECORATIVE  CARVING  ON  WOOD,  ESPECIALLY  ON  THE 
BURIAL  MEMORIALS  OF  THE  BETSILEO  MALAGASY ; 
TOGETHER  WITH  NOTES  ON  THE  HANDICRAFTS  OF 
THE  MALAGASY  AND  NATIVE  PRODUCTS. 


Absence  of  artistic  feeling  among  the  Hova — The  Betsileo — Carved  memorial 
posts — Various  forms  of  tombs — Character  of  the  carving — Vatolahy  or 
memorial  stones — Graves  at  great  depths — Carving  in  houses — Collection  of 
rubbings — General  style  of  ornamentation — Symbolic  meaning  ? — Malagasy 
handicrafts — Spinning  and  weaving — Different  kinds  of  cloth — Straw-work 
— Bark-cloth — Metal-work — Pottery —  Building — Canoes  and  boats  —  Culti- 
vated products  of  country — Exports. 

^  I        those  who  have  paid  attention  to  the  indigenous  art 


X  developed  amongst  the  uncivilised  races  of  mankind,  and 
are  acquainted  with  the  elaborate  and  varied  ornamentation 
used  by  the  Malayan,  the  Polynesian,  and  the  Melanesian  tribes, 
there  is  something  very  surprising  in  the  almost  total  absence  of 
ornamental  art  amongst  the  Hova  and  some  of  the  other  peoples 
inhabiting  Madagascar.  If  we  look  at  any  illustrated  book 
describing  the  inhabitants  of  the  Pacific  Islands,  or,  still  better, 
if  we  carefully  study  the  ethnological  galleries  of  our  British 
Museum,  or  the  Pitt-Rivers  collection  at  Oxford,  we  shall  find 
that  every  group,  and  sometimes  every  solitary  island,  has  each 
its  particular  style  of  ornament,  special  to  itself,  and  easily 
distinguishable  from  that  of  other  groups  or  islands.  Their 
canoes  and  paddles,  clubs  and  spears,  houses  and  beds,  dishes 
and  spoons,  pipes  and  snuff-boxes,  gourds  and  bowls,  are  all 
ornamented,  sometimes  most  elaborately  and  beautifully  ;  and 


314 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


this  decoration  extends  to  their  own  persons,  in  the  practice  of 
tattooing,  and  in  the  patterns  woven  into  the  cloth  or  matting 
of  their  dresses,  or  stamped  upon  the  bark  cloth  they  procure 
from  various  trees.  But  we  see  hardly  anything  of  all  this  in 
Imerina,  the  central  province  of  Madagascar.  It  is  true  that 
many  of  the  large  stone  tombs  built  of  late  years  have  some 
architectural  pretensions,  and  decorative  carving  is  employed  on 
them,  but  the  details  are  mostly  copied  from  drawings  of  Euro- 
pean buildings,  and  cannot  be  properly  considered  as  examples 
of  indigenous  art.^  I  was  therefore  much  interested  during  a 
journey  to  the  south  of  Madagascar,  made  in  the  year  1876, 
to  discover  that  amongst  the  Betsileo  there  is  a  decided  and 
special  style  of  ornament,  which  is  used  in  their  houses,  their 
tombs,  and  many  of  their  household  utensils,  as  spoons,  gourds, 
dishes,  &c.  ;  and  that  a  kind  of  tattooing  is  very  common 
amongst  them,  in  which  some  of  the  same  ornamental  details 
are  also  introduced.  It  should  perhaps  here  be  noted  that  this 
tribe  of  Malagasy  occupy  the  southern  central  highlands  of 
Madagascar.  They  are  darker  in  colour  than  the  Hova,  and 
although  physically  bigger  and  stronger,  were  conquered  by  them 
in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century.  They  are  variously 
estimated  as  numbering  from  six  hundred  thousand  to  a  million 

^  The  only  examples  I  can  recall  of  anything  distinctively  characteristic  of 
the  Hova  Malagasy  as  regards  decoration  are  a  slight  ornamentation  of  the  long 
gable  timbers  or  "  horns,"  and  also  in  the  dormer  windows,  of  the  old-fashioned 
native  houses,  which  sometimes  have  a  chevron  or  "  dog-tooth,"  or  small  semi- 
circular ornament  cut  on  their  lower  edge  ;  also  the  conventionalised  square 
flower  and  leaf  pattern,  used  on  their  finer  silk  cloths  or  lambas ;  and,  perhaps, 
some  of  the  patterns  in  the  straw-work  of  their  fine  mats  and  baskets.  In  the 
interior  ornamentation  of  some  of  the  royal  houses  at  Antananarivo  there 
seemed  to  me  to  be  a  certain  distinct  style  prevalent.  This  is  chiefly  seen  in 
the  painted  decorations  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  walls,  and  sometimes  of  the 
ceilings,  which,  both  in  the  colouring  and  large  bold  style  of  the  patterns, 
always  reminded  me  somewhat  of  Assyrian  ornament,  as  shown  in  the  decoration 
of  the  palaces  at  Persepolis.  There  is  very  little  that  is  decorative  in  Hova 
pottery,  but  a  special  kind  of  vessel  made  for  cooking  the  beef  at  the  New  Year's 
festival  is  rather  elegant  in  shape,  much  resembling  some  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
potteiy.  These  vessels  are  circular  and  somewhat  flattened,  and  are  frequently 
ornamented  with  a  series  of  lines  and  zigzags,  very  closely  resembling  those  on 
the  early  fictile  productions  of  the  Germanic  races. 


DECORATIVE  CARVING  ON  WOOD.  315 

and  a  half.  Probably  they  are  really  somewhere  between 
these  two  estimates,  i.e.,  somewhat  over  a  million  in  number. 
I  had  occasionally  heard  from  missionaries  who  had  lived  in 
or  visited  the  Betsileo  country  that  there  was  a  good  deal  of 
decorative  carving  in  this  southern  province ;  but  no  one,  so 
far  as  I  am  aware,  has  yet  described  at  all  adequately  the 
character  of  this  ornament,  or  the  different  varieties  of  tombs 
and  burial  memorials  seen  in  the  Betsileo  province ;  and 
although  my  observations  were  only  those  made  on  a  rapid 
journey  through  the  country,  on  my  way  to  the  south-east 
coast,  and  on  a  subsequent  journey  to  Fianarantsoa,  the  capital 
of  the  province,  they  may  perhaps  have  some  interest  as  a  slight 
contribution  towards  a  fuller  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and 
may,  perhaps,  lead  those  who  are  resident  in  the  province  to 
give  it  that  thorough  investigation  which  it  deserves. 

I  first  noticed  something  new  in  the  tombs  in  the  tract  of 
country  between  Isandrandahy  and  Ambositra.  Within  two 
or  three  hours'  journey  from  the  latter  place  I  observed  that 
the  upright  stones  placed  near  graves  were  not  the  rough 
undressed  blocks  or  slabs  common  in  Imerina,  but  were  finely 
dressed  and  squared,  and  ornamented  with  carving.  (In 
Imerina,  I  may  here  remark,  the  Hova  tombs  consist  of  a 
vault  made  of  large  undressed  slabs  of  blue  granite  rock,  with 
stone  shelves,  upon  which  the  dead  are  laid,  tightly  wrapped  up 
in  a  number  of  native  cloth  Idmbas,  the  outer  ones  of  silk.  The 
door  is  of  stone,  with  pivot  hinges,  above  and  below,  fitting  into 
sockets  ;  and  the  whole  structure  is  usually  finished  with  a 
square  erection  of  dressed  stonework,  in  two  or  three  stages, 
often  with  a  kind  of  headstone,  on  which,  since  the  introduction 
of  letters,  is  frequently  cut  the  name  and  titles  of  the  head  of 
the  family.  When  the  corpse  of  a  person  of  rank  and  position 
cannot  be  obtained  for  burial  in  the  family  tomb,  as  occasionally 
happens  in  war,  a  rough  undressed  slab  of  stone  is  erected  as  a 
burial  memorial.  These  are  often  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  and 
are  termed  vatolahy,  which  means  literally  "  male-stone  "  ;  and 


3l6  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

I  have  sometimes  thought  that  this  word,  and  the  shape  of 
the  stone,  may  indicate  some  ancient  connection  with  phallus 
worship. 

On  one  of  the  days  of  my  stay  at  Ambositra,  I  walked  to 
the  top  of  the  rising  ground  on  the  western  slope  of  which  the 
town  is  principally  built.  Here  there  was  an  old  Amontana^ 
tree,  and  memorials  to  some  of  the  early  kings  of  the  Betsileo. 
The  chief  of  these  was  a  piece  of  timber  seven  or  eight  inches 
square  and  about  ten  feet  high,  having  pieces  of  wood  pro- 
jecting from  a  little  below  the  top,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  stage. 
Each  face  of  the  timber  was  elaborately  carved  with  different 
patterns  arranged  in  squares.  Some  of  these  were  concentric 
circles,  a  large  one  in  the  centre,  with  smaller  ones  filling  up 
the  angles ;  others  had  a  circle  with  a  number  of  little  bosses 
in  them  ;  others  had  a  kind  of  leaf  ornament  ;  and  in  others 
parallel  lines  were  arranged  in  different  directions.  The  narrow 
spaces  dividing  these  squares  from  each  other,  had  in  some  cases 
an  ornament  like  the  Norman  chevron  or  zigzag,  and  in  others, 
something  similar  to  the  Greek  wave-like  scroll.  The  whole 
erection  with  its  ornamentation  bore  a  strong  resemblance  to 
the  old  runic  stones,  or  the  memorial  crosses  in  Ireland  and 
parts  of  the  Scottish  Highlands.  The  north  face  of  this 
memorial  post  was  quite  sharp  and  fresh,  but  the  others  were 
worn  by  the  weather,  and  the  carving  was  filled  up  with  lichens. 
I  was  greatly  interested  with  this  carving,  as  being  almost  the 
first  specimen  I  had  seen  of  indigenous  Malagasy  art ;  and  I 
greatly  regretted  having  no  appliances  with  me  for  taking  a 
"  rubbing  "  or  a  "  squeeze."  Not  very  far  from  this  memorial 
there  were  some  others,  consisting  of  two  pairs  of  posts,  each 
with  a  lintel,  like  a  gateway,  except  that  the  opening  was  filled 
up  by  a  large  flat  upright  stone.  These  posts  were  carved 
much  in  the  same  style  as  the  single  one  just  described,  but 
were  not  so  massive,  and  were  more  weathered.  The  tops  of 
the  posts  were  carved  into  a  shape  somewhat  resembling  a  vase. 

'  Ficus  Baroni,  Baker. 


DECORATIVE  CARVING  ON  WOOD.  317 

I  then  remembered  that,  two  or  three  days  before,  we  had 
passed  a  newly  set-up  memorial  stone  carved  in  three  large 
squares,  with  much  the  same  kind  of  ornament  as  these  posts 
had  in  wood. 

I  now  regret  still  more  not  having  obtained  some  sketch  of 
this  group  of  burial  memorials,  because,  on  visiting  Ambositra 
again  twelve  years  subsequently,  I  found  that  the  whole  had 
been  utterly  swept  away.  The  Hova  governor  had  appropri- 
ated the  site  for  his  official  residence  and  courtyard,  and  the 
picturesque  tombs  of  the  old  Betsileo  chiefs  and  the  fine  trees 
had  been  destroyed  to  make  way  for  a  great  brick  building,  raw 
and  commonplace,  whose  erection  had  been  a  heavy  tax  upon 
the  unpaid  service  of  the  people. 

On  our  journey  from  Ambositra  to  Fianarantsoa,  at  about 
two  hours'  distance  from  the  former  place,  we  passed  a  tomb 
by  the  roadside  with  a  carved  wooden  post  similar  to  those  at 
Ambositra.  I  got  down  from  the  palanquin  and  examined  it ; 
some  of  the  carving  was  similar  to  what  I  had  already  seen,  but 
there  were  other  graceful  forms  which  were  new,  and  some  of 
the  compartments  were  like  the  English  Union-Jack.  But  it 
was  oh  the  following  day,  when  passing  over  the  elevated  line 
of  road  between  Zoma  Nandihizana  and  Ambohinamboarina, 
that  I  was  most  astonished  and  interested  by  the  profusion 
with  which  the  carved  memorials  were  scattered  along  the 
roadside,  as  well  as  in  all  directions  over  the  tract  of  country 
visible  on  either  hand.  Leaving  an  elevated  valley — if  one  can 
so  describe  it — a  long,  nearly  level  hollow  on  high  ground,  with 
hills  on  either  side  not  a  mile  apart,  and  gently  curving  round 
to  the  south-west — we  came  out  at  last  to  an  uninterrupted 
view,  and  in  sight  of  a  rounded  green  hill,  about  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  to  the  west  of  the  road.  This  place  is  called  Ikangara,  and 
has  a  few  houses  and  a  little  church  on  the  top.  But  between  it 
and  the  road  there  was  a  large  number  of  tombs  and  memorial 
posts,  so  my  companion  and  I  went  to  inspect  them.  They 
were  well  worth  a  visit,  as  in  a  small  space  there  were  grouped 


3l8  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

together  many  different  kinds  of  monuments,  with  wood  carving 
in  great  variety.  Within  a  short  distance  were  some  forty  or 
fifty  tombs,  and  on  examining  them  there  appeared  to  be  the 
following  kinds  : — 

(1)  The  largest  tombs — there  were  two  of  them — were  of 
small  flat  stones,  built  in  a  square  of  some  twenty  to  twenty-five 
feet,  and  about  five  feet  high.  But  around  them  was  a  railing 
of  carved  posts  and  rails,  those  at  each  corner  with  the  vase- 
shaped  top  already  described ;  these  were  connected  by  a 
transverse  rail,  and  this  again  was  supported  on  each  of  the 
four  sides  by  upright  posts  which  finished  under  the  rail.  All 
the  upright  timbers  were  carved  in  patterns  like  those  seen  at 
Ambositra  and  on  the  road  the  previous  day. 

(2)  Another  kind  of  tomb  was  formed  by  a  square  structure 
of  small  flat  stones,  four  or  five  feet  high,  and  perhaps  a  dozen 
feet  square  ;  but  on  the  top  was  a  square  enclosure  of  four 
carved  posts  with  the  vase-shaped  heads,  connected  by  lintels, 
and  with  an  intermediate  upright.  This  structure  was  about 
four  feet  square,  by  seven  or  eight  feet  high,  and  in  the  centre 
was  a  single  carved  post. 

(3)  A  third  kind  of  monument  was  a  massive  block  of 
granite,  from  eight  to  ten  feet  high,  and  from  eighteen  inches 
to  two  feet  square,  with  carved  posts  at  the  four  corners  and 
touching  them.  On  the  top  these  were  connected  by  carved 
cross  pieces,  and  upon  these  the  skulls  of  the  bullocks  killed  at 
the  funeral  of  the  person  the  monument  commemorated  were 
placed.    Many  of  these  horned  skulls  remained  in  their  places. 

(4)  Another  kind  of  memorial  was  a  massive  square  post  of 
wood,  about  twenty  feet  high  and  fifteen  inches  square,  carved 
on  all  four  sides  from  top  to  bottom.  There  were  four  or  five 
of  these  enormous  posts  here.  In  one  case  there  was  a  pair 
of  them,  as  if  to  form  a  kind  of  gateway  ;  two  or  three  were 
split  nearly  all  down  their  length  by  the  action  of  the  sun  and 
weather. 

(5)  Still   another  kind  was  an  oblong   block  of  dressed 


DECORATIVE  CARVING  ON  WOOD.  319 

granite,  with  an  iron  hooping  round  the  top,  in  which  were 
fixed  a  dozen  or  more  pairs  of  slender  iron  horns.  There  were 
two  of  this  kind  of  monument  at  this  place,  and  we  afterwards 
saw  others  on  the  road. 

(6)  Besides  the  foregoing  there  were  numerous  specimens 
of  the  smaller  carved  post  such  as  we  had  already  seen  at 
Ambositra,  wnth  the  vase-shaped  head  and  a  small  open  staging 
near  the  top,  on  which  were  fixed  upright  sharp-pointed  pieces 
of  wood.    These  were  for  placing  the  ox  skulls  upon. 

It  may  be  here  noted  that  the  humped  and  long-horned  ox 
being  the  largest  animal  known  in  Madagascar,  this  animal, 
especially  the  bull,  is  very  often  used  in  native  proverbs,  royal 
speeches,  songs,  and  circumcision  observances,  as  a  symbol  of 
power  and  authority,  while  the  horn  is  frequently  employed  as 
an  emblem  of  strength,  much  indeed  as  it  was  employed  by  the 
Hebrews  and  other  Asiatics.  Among  the  Sihanaka  people  lofty 
round  poles  are  erected  near  their  tombs,  and  at  the  top  of  these 
a  forked  branch  of  a  tree  is  fixed,  carved  into  a  close  resem- 
blance of  a  pair  of  horns.  And  in  the  Tanala,  or  forest  region, 
the  extremities  of  the  gable  timbers  of  the  houses  are  fashioned 
into  the  form  of  horns.  Among  the  Hova  these  are  simply 
crossed  and  slightly  ornamented,  small  wooden  figures  of  birds 
being  often  affixed  to  them,  but  they  are  still  called  "  house 
horns,"  or  tdjidro-trano.  In  royal  proclamations  the  soldiers  are 
styled  "  horns  of  the  kingdom."  There  are  many  interesting 
customs  among  the  Malagasy,  showing  that  the  ox  has  retained 
the  semi-sacred  character  it  bears  among  many  nations  ;  in 
some  tribes  only  the  chiefs  are  allowed  to  kill  the  animal, 
evidently  because  the  chief  or  king  is  also  the  high-priest  of 
the  tribe ;  while  among  other  Malagasy  peoples  the  ox  is  only 
killed  at  certain  seasons  which  have  some  religious  significance. 
The  native  kings  are  saluted  as  bmbeldhy,  or  "  bulls  "  ;  and  the 
same  expression  frequently  occurs  in  forms  of  benediction  at  the 
circumcision  and  other  festivities. 

To  return,  however,  to  the  interesting  group  of  tombs  at 


320  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Ikangara.  Many  of  these  memorials  were  sorely  weathered 
and  defaced,  and  others  were  falling,  or  had  fallen,  and  were 
rotting  away.  But  there  was  a  great  variety  of  pattern,  many 
of  them  being  well  worth  preserving  and  copying. 

On  the  roadside,  before  we  turned  from  the  main  path  to 
look  at  Ikangara,  were  a  number  of  the  more  simple  tombs,  of 
a  kind  that  seem  peculiar  to  the  Betsileo.  They  consist  of  a 
plain  square,  almost  a  cube,  of  thin  undressed  stones  laid  very 
evenly.  In  some  instances  these  had  upright  slabs  at  the 
corners  and  centres  of  the  sides,  so  that  they  were  not  unlike 
Hova  tombs,  but  the  majority  were  of  small  stones  only,  laid 
horizontally.  From  the  number  of  handsome  tombs  and 
memorials  near  this  little  town,  we  judged  that  it  must  have 
been  an  important  place  in  former  days.  We  stayed  some 
considerable  time  examining  this  ancient  cemetery,  and  then 
proceeded  on  our  way  southwards. 

Our  road  lay  along  the  top  of  a  long  ridge,  with  a  valley  on 
the  west  and  an  extensive  plain  on  the  east,  with  numerous 
hills,  and  old  fortifications  on  their  tops.  Over  the  plain  were 
dotted  small  villages  and  numberless  green  vala,  or  homesteads 
of  the  Betsileo,  enclosed  in  a  circular  and  impenetrable  fence  of 
thorny  mimosa  or  Tsidfakbmby,  i.e.,  "  impassable  by  cattle " 
{Ccesalpinia  sepiaria,  Roxb.).  About  a  quarter  of  an  hour  after 
leaving  Ikangara,  we  came  to  an  old  fortification  running  along 
the  crest  of  the  ridge,  and  called  lanjanonakely ;  a  low  stone 
rampart  extended  for  a  hundred  yards  or  more  along  the  hill, 
and  there  were  many  tombs.  Indeed  we  were  struck  by  the 
number  of  tombs  and  carved  monuments  on  the  roadside  all 
the  way  to  Ambohinamboarina.  The  most  common  form  is  the 
plain  square  tomb  of  thin,  small,  undressed  stones,  and  the 
upright  vdtolahy,  or  block  of  granite,  from  eighteen  inches  to 
two  feet  square,  and  eight  to  ten  feet  high.  While  the  tsdngain- 
bdto  in  Imerina  are  all  of  rough  undressed  slabs  of  blue  rock, 
these  in  Betsileo  are  of  fine-grained,  hard  white  granite,  in 
massive  blocks,  and  dressed  to  a  beautifully  smooth  face.  They 


DECORATIVE  CARVING  ON  WOOD.  32 1 

are  often  in  couples,  and  in  one  instance  there  were  two 
stones,  with  an  elaborately  carved  post  between  them.  But  the 
combinations  of  the  different  kinds  of  memorial  were  very- 
numerous  ;  there  was  something  new  every  few  yards  ;  and 
all  over  the  plain,  near  every  little  cluster  of  houses,  we  could 
see  these  white  memorial  stones. 

South  of  the  INIatsiatra  river,  and  nearer  Fianarantsoa,  I 
noticed  that  there  were  very  few  of  the  upright  square  memorial 
stones  compared  with  what  we  saw  the  previous  day,  and  that 
there  were  no  carved  wood  pillars  at  all.  All  the  tombs,  which 
hereabouts  were  very  numerous,  were  the  plain  square  or  cube 
of  undressed  flat  stones.  The  majority  of  these,  I  was  surprised 
to  find,  were  hollow,  many  having  trees — Hasina,  Fano,  and 
others — growing  out  of  the  middle,  which  has  a  circular  opening, 
and  overshadowing  the  whole  tomb,  a  sight  never  seen  in 
Imerina.  From  this  it  was  clear  that  the  chamber  in  which 
the  corpses  are  deposited  does  not  project  at  all  above  the 
ground,  as  it  does  in  Hova  tombs ;  and  I  afterwards  ascertained 
that  this  chamber  is  excavated  at  considerable  depth  beneath 
the  square  pile  of  stones,  which  is  therefore  not  a  grave,  but 
only  marks  the  place  of  one  far  below  the  surface.  I  noticed 
also  that  there  was  in  most  cases  a  long  low  mound  of  earth 
extending  from  one  side  of  the  tomb  to  a  distance  of  from 
thirty  or  forty  to  eighty  feet  and  upwards.  This,  it  appears, 
marks  the  line  of  a  long  tunnelled  passage  gradually  descending 
from  the  surface  to  the  deeply  sunk  burial  chamber.  Mr. 
Richardson  says  that  some  of  the  Betsileo  tombs  are  as  much 
as  sixty  feet  deep,  and  are  approached  by  a  gradually  descending 
passage  opening  some  forty  or  fifty  feet  distant  from  the  burial 
chamber.  The  tombs  of  the  rich  are  sometimes  15  or  16  feet 
square,  and  are  quite  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  ;  and  the 
four  walls  and  roof  are  formed  of  five  immense  stone  slabs, 
which  are  brought  from  great  distances,  and  involve  almost 
incredible  labour.  I  measured  one  slab  of  granite,  which  was 
more  than  18  feet  long,  10  feet  wide,  and  nearly  3  feet  thick 

22 


322  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

in  some  parts.  I  was  once  in  a  tomb  i8  feet  long,  14  feet 
wide,  and  10  feet  high,  formed  of  five  stones,  in  one  of  which, 
to  the  west,  had  been  cut  an  opening,  and  a  rude  stone  door, 
working  in  stone  sockets,  had  been  fixed  there.  The  finest 
memorial  stone  I  saw  was  almost  circular,  and  was  4  feet  in 
diameter,  and  about  20  feet  high  above  the  ground.  Sometimes 
these  stones  are  covered  with  carved  oxen  and  birds.  The  most 
honourable  superstructure  is  a  solid  mass  of  masonry  erected 
over  the  stone  tombs  just  described.  These  are  square  in  shape, 
and  about  6  feet  high.  A  cornice  is  worked  round  the  top,  and 
on  this  are  laid  the  skulls  of  all  the  oxen  killed  at  the  funeral 
regularly  arranged.  I  have  seen  one,  now  rapidly  falling  into 
decay,  on  which  were  no  less  than  500  such  skulls !  The  most 
symmetrical  I  ever  saw  was  a  new  tomb,  on  which,  in  the  outer 
square,  were  arranged  108  skulls  of  oxen  in  most  regular  order, 
every  other  skull  being  that  of  an  ox  whose  horns  had  grown 
downwards.  There  were  also  two  other  squares  of  skulls 
arranged  behind  this  one.  It  was  a  strange  sight  to  see  so 
many  skulls  of  oxen  with  the  horns,  arranged  thus,  and  bleach- 
ing in  the  sun." 

All  through  the  country  south  of  the  so-called  "  desert,"  or 
uninhabited  region,  near  Ivotovorona,  we  were  struck  by  the 
tattooing  on  the  chest,  neck,  and  arms  of  many  of  the  people. 
In  some  cases  the  men  had  figures  of  oxen,  and  in  others  an 
ornament  like  a  floriated  Greek  cross  ;  while  the  women  had  a 
kind  of  tattooed  collar,  which  looked  like  deep  lace-work  or 
vandyking  on  the  neck  and  chest.  But  I  liave  never  seen 
tattooing  on  the  faces  of  the  people. 

I  regretted  that,  our  journey  being  made  chiefly  for  the 
purpose  of  seeing  districts  further  south  than  Betsileo,  we  were 
unable  to  visit  some  of  the  larger  old  Betsileo  towns,  such  as 
Ifanjakana,  Nandihizana,  Ikalamavony,  and  others,  where  I 
was  told  there  is  a  great  deal  of  the  peculiar  carving  to  be  seen 
not  only  in  the  tombs,  but  also  in  the  dwelling  houses  and 
furniture.    We  did,  however,  see  two  specimens  of  this  native 


DECORATIVE  CARVING  ON  WOOD.  323 

art  as  used  in  building :  first,  just  before  entering  the  Tanala 
country,  and  again,  immediately  on  leaving  the  forest  on  our 
return  home.  The  first  example  was  at  a  village  of  forty  houses 
called  Ivalokianja,  about  two  hours  south-east  of  Im^hazony. 
Here  we  went  into  one  of  the  houses  in  the  village  for  our 
lunch ;  it  was  the  largest  house  there,  but  was  not  so  large  as 
our  tent  (11  feet  square),  and  the  walls  were  only  5  feet  6  inches 
high.  The  door  was  a  small  square  aperture,  i  foot  10  inches 
wide  by  2  feet  4  inches  high,  and  its  threshold  2  feet  9  inches 
from  the  ground.  Close  to  it,  at  the  end  of  the  house,  was 
another  door  or  window,  and  opposite  were  two  small  openings 
about  a  foot  and  a  half  square.  The  hearth  was  opposite  the 
door,  and  the  bed-place  in  what  is  the  window  corner  in  Hova 
houses.  In  this  house  was  the  first  example  I  had  seen  of 
decorative  carving  in  Malagasy  houses  ;  the  external  faces  of 
the  main  post  supporting  the  roof  being  carved  with  a  simple 
but  effective  ornament  of  squares  and  diagonals.  There  was 
also  other  ornamentation  much  resembling  the  English  Union 
Jack.  The  gables  were  filled  in  with  a  neat  platted  work  of 
split  bamboo.  The  majority  of  the  houses  in  this  and  most  of 
the  Betsileo  villages  are  only  about  10  or  11  feet  long  by  8 
or  9  feet  wide,  and  the  walls  from  3  to  5  feet  high.  A  stranger 
seeing  many  of  these  native  houses  for  the  first  time  would  say 
that  they  had  no  doors,  and  only  very  small  windows,  for  the 
doors  are  so  small  and  high  up  that  entering  such  a  house  is  a 
gymnastic  feat  requiring  considerable  agility,  and  more  amusing 
to  an  onlooker  than  pleasant  to  the  performer.  All  ideas  of 
dignity  must  be  laid  aside. 

The  other  example  we  saw  of  carving  used  for  house  orna- 
mentation was  at  a  small  cluster  of  half  a  dozen  houses  called 
Ifandriana,  some  three  hours  before  reaching  Isandrandahy  on 
the  way  from  Ambohimanga  in  the  Tanala.  The  three  centre 
posts  of  the  timber  house,  in  which  we  stayed,  were  all  covered 
with  carving  of  much  the  same  character  as  that  used  in  the 
memorial  posts  already  described,  but  it  was  not  quite  so  well 


324  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

executed.  The  nearly  square  window  shutters  had  each  a 
circular  ornament  carved  upon  them,  much  like  the  conven- 
tional representations  of  the  sun,  with  rays,  proceeding  from  a 
centre,  thirteen  in  number.  During  a  more  recent  visit  to  the 
Betsileo  province,  I  had  opportunities  of  seeing  some  other 
interiors  ;  and  in  these  not  only  were  the  three  posts  of  the 
house  and  the  windows  carved,  but  also  the  woodwork  enclosing 
the  fixed  bedstead — quite  a  little  room  of  itself — as  well  as 
other  timberwork  about  the  building.  In  a  paper  contributed 
by  Mr.  Shaw  to  the  Antananarivo  Annual  for  1878,  he  re- 
marks : — "  The  most  distinctive  indigenous  art  of  the  Betsileo 
is  the  carving,  which  is  noticed  by  every  one  travelling  in  any 
part  of  the  province.  There  is  an  endless  variety  of  patterns, 
though  a  great  number  are  formed  by  combinations  of  three  or 
four  simple  designs,  that  appear,  in  some  form  or  other,  on 
nearly  every  house-post  or  door,  which  are  highly  ornamented." 

One  of  the  most  perfect  examples  of  the  carved  memorial 
post  we  saw  the  same  day,  in  the  morning,  at  the  picturesquely 
situated  village  of  Ivohitrdmbo.  This  place  is  perched  like  an 
eagle's  nest  on  the  summit  of  a  lofty  cone  of  rock,  on  the  edge 
of  the  interior  plateau,  and  overlooking  the  great  forest,  the 
country  of  the  Tanala  tribes,  above  which  it  towers  about 
2,500  feet.  This  memorial  was  close  to  the  village,  and  was 
very  perfect,  the  carving  very  sharp,  and  the  stage  near  the  top, 
consisting  of  several  pieces  of  wood  crossing  one  another,  in 
good  preservation,  with  about  thirty  ox  skulls  and  horns  still  in 
their  places. 

It  may  be  added  that  in  many  cases  figures  of  oxen  and 
men  are  carved  in  some  of  the  panels  or  compartments  of  these 
memorial  posts,  but  the  ornament  is  chiefly  conventional.  The 
Betsileo  name  for  these  memorial  pillars  is  teza  or  tezan-kazo  ; 
the  root  teza  means  "  durability,  anything  firmty  fixed,"  and 
also,  "  fixed  upright." 

In  his  little  book  entitled  Madagascar  of  To-day,  Mr.  Shaw 
says,  "  Perhaps  the  most  elaborately  carved  post  I  saw  during 


DECORATIVE  CARVING  ON  WOOD.  325 

my  residence  of  eight  years  in  the  Betsileo  was  at  a  small 
village  about  a  clay's  journey  north-west  of  Fianarantsoa. 
This  was  the  central  post  of  a  high  house  belonging  to  one  of 
the  chiefs.  It  was  twenty  feet  high  and  carved  from  top  to  bottom. 
Each  of  the  four  surfaces,  about  eighteen  inches  broad,  was 
divided  into  sections  by  cross-cuts  forming  squares  with  the 
edge  of  the  post.  In  each  of  these  were  different  designs 
formed  according  to  the  individual  tastes  of  the  many  men 
who  were  probably  impressed  into  the  service  of  the  chief  to 
perform  the  work.  Some  consisted  of  radiating  triangles, 
whose  apices  met  in  the  central  point ;  some  were  filled  with 
pairs  of  circles  touching  each  other  at  the  circumference  ;  others 
were  concentric  circles,  and  the  corners  of  the  squares  filled 
with  smaller  curves  springing  from  the  outermost  circle ;  other 
squares  were  filled  with  zigzag  lines  running  parallel  to  each 
other,  or  running  diagonally  across  the  square,  while  others  were 
rough  imitations  of  birds,  bullocks,  crocodiles,  &c." 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  Betsileo  art  it  may  be  added 
that  gourds,  fifes,  tobacco  boxes  (a  piece  of  finely  polished 
reed  or  bamboo),  and  other  articles  are  often  very  tastefully 
ornamented  with  patterns  incised  on  the  smooth  yellow  surface, 
the  lines  being  then  filled  in  with  black.  These  patterns  consist 
of  lines,  zigzags,  scrolls,  and  diaper  grounds,  often  very  artistically 
arranged. 

As  already  remarked,  my  visit  to  the  Betsileo  in  1876  was 
too  short  and  hasty  to  allow  of  a  thorough  examination  of  these 
interesting  examples  of  indigenous  art.  And  not  thinking  of 
meeting  with  such  specimens  of  carving,  I  had  not  prepared 
myself  beforehand  with  any  appliances  for  taking  drawings  or 
copying  them  in  any  way.  But  an  article  in  the  Antananarivo 
Annual  for  1876,  which  I  have  largely  reproduced  in  this  chapter, 
did,  to  some  extent,  have  the  effect  I  desired  in  drawing  the 
attention  of  some  of  my  brother  missionaries  to  the  subject, 
and  especially  in  inducing  Mr.  Shaw  to  make  a  number  of 
rubbings  of  the  more  characteristic  specimens  of  the  ornament 


326  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

employed.  Still,  these  by  no  means  convey  a  proper  idea  of 
the  rich  effect  of  many  of  these  sculptured  memorials,  for 
hardly  anything  but  photography  and  the  autotype  process 
could  adequately  reproduce  the  many  varieties  of  elaborate 
carving  that  are  to  be  found  ;  but  still,  much  might  be  done  by 
careful  measurements  and  sketches  and  enlarged  photographs. 
Many  of  the  finest  specimens  of  carving  in  the  memorial  posts 
and  tombs  are  being  fast  obliterated  by  the  action  of  the 
weather,  and  if  not  secured  within  a  few  years,  the  patterns 
carved  upon  them  will  soon  be  past  recovery.  Indeed,  when 
passing  by  Ikangara  seven  years  ago,  I  found  the  interesting 
group  of  burial  memorials  already  described  fast  disappearing. 
Some  of  those  I  had  seen  in  1876  were  quite  gone,  either  rotted 
away  by  the  rain  and  damp,  or  fallen  to  the  ground  and  half 
buried  in  debris^  and  the  whole  presenting  a  much  less  striking 
appearance  than  during  my  first  visit  twelve  years  previously. 
(Of  course  these  remarks  apply  chiefly  to  those  carvings  which 
are  out  of  doors  ;  those  in  houses  have  a  much  greater  chance 
of  preservation,  but  even  here  the  desire  to  have  larger  and 
more  modern  fashioned  dwellings,  especially  of  sun-dried  brick, 
will  probably  cause  the  destruction  of  many  of  these  old- 
fashioned  adornments.)  Besides  this,  it  is  very  probable  that 
the  incoming  of  ideas  and  fashions  from  foreigners  will 
eventually  lead  to  the  discontinuance  of  this  primitive  style 
both  of  memorial  and  of  ornament,  although  I  have  more 
recently  found  that  such  carvings  are  still  executed,  and  such 
memorial  posts  still  set  up  by  the  people.  Still,  as  examples  of. 
indigenous  art,  it  is  very  desirable  that  they  should  be  copied 
as  soon  as  possible,  and  perhaps  it  might  be  practicable  to 
secure  a  few  examples  of  the  best  carved  pieces  of  wood  them- 
selves, and  have  them  carefully  deposited  in  some  place  of 
safety  for  reference  and  preservation.  Apart  from  their  intrinsic 
interest,  these  carvings  may  prove  of  value  in  showing  links  of 
connection  between  the  Betsileo  and  some  of  the  Malayan  and 
Oceanic  peoples,  and  thus  aid  us  in  understanding  more  clearly 


DECORATIVE  CARVING  ON  WOOD. 


the  race  affinities  of  the  people  of  Madagascar.  Mr.  Shaw 
observes,  "  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  simple  designs  [of 
the  Betsileo  carvings]  are  almost  identical  with  the  same  species 
of  ornamentation  in  Polynesia.  On  a  carved  hatchet-handle 
from  Mangaia  (Hervey  Islands)  in  my  possession  are  some 
patterns  precisely  like  those  on  the  spoon-handles  manufactured 
by  the  untutored  Betsileo.  The  wooden  and  horn  spoons 
and  wooden  bowls  for  rice  are  also  remarkably  well  carved,  of 
good  shape,  beautifully  smooth,  and  gracefully  ornamented." 

I  have  been  unable  to  ascertain  whether  there  are  any  tradi- 
tions among  the  Betsileo  as  to  the  origin  of  this  peculiar  style  of 
ornamentation,  or  whether  the  different  patterns  employed  have 
any  religious  or  symbolic  meaning.^  Not  having  resided  in  the 
province,  I  have  had  no  opportunity  of  making  any  inquiries  of 
this  sort,  although  many  questions  now  suggest  themselves  as 
interesting.  I  hope  that  my  brother  missionaries  stationed 
among  the  people  will  try  and  ascertain  something  more  on 
these  points. 

It  will  be  understood  that  even  Mr.  Shaw's  collection,  valuable 
as  it  is,  cannot  give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  size  of  some  of  these 
memorial  posts,  many  of  which,  as  already  mentioned,  are  twenty 
feet  high,  and  eighteen  inches  square  in  section,  while  those  he 
exhibited,  in  two  of  the  rubbings,  are  only  about  four  feet  high. 
It  would  indeed  be  a  rather  formidable  task  to  take  a  complete 
copy  of  these  largest  memorials,  and  would  require  many  ap- 
pliances and  assistances,  as  well  as  an  amount  of  time  such  as 
missionaries  can  rarely  give  to  pursuits  outside  their  more  imme- 
mediate  and  special  work.  I  trust,  however,  that  my  descriptions 
will  give  some  clear  idea  of  these  productions  of  the  Betsileo, 
and  will  show  the  decided  love  of  ornament  which  they  manifest 
in  their  peculiar  style  of  wood  carving. 

^  In  the  discussion  that  followed  the  reading  of  this  paper,  one  of  the  members 
expressed  a  strong  opinion  that  these  ornaments  must  have  had  originally  some 
religious  signification.  He  also  pointed  out  the  fact  (which  I  had  not  myself 
noticed)  that  in  all  the  circles  the  rays  were  thirteen  in  number,  therefore  probably 
bearing  some  meaning.  Miss  Buckland  remarked  that  many  of  the  patterns  closely 
resembled  those  on  articles  from  the  Xicobar  Islands. 


328  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

MALAGASY  HANDICRAFTS. 

This  chapter  seems  an  appropriate  place  for  saying  something 
further  about  other  manual  arts  practised  by  the  people  of 
Madagascar.  I  proceed  therefore  to  describe  briefly  their  chief 
handicrafts,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  these  are  strictly 
7nanufa.cturQs  in  the  original  and  literal  sense  of  the  word  made 
by  hand^  and  not  by  machinery,  steam-engines  and  power  looms 
being  still  unknown  to  the  Malagasy. 

Spinning  and  Weaving. — Most  of  the  Malagasy  races  are 
expert  in  the  various  arts  in  which  dexterity  of  hand  is  requisite 
— manufactures,  strictly  so  called — and  their  long,  tapering 
fingers  look  as  if  formed  for  skilled  work.  In  the  processes  con- 
nected with  spinning  and  weaving,  the  Malagasy  show  no  small 
amount  of  skill.  They  make  a  variety  of  cloths,  both  coarse 
and  fine,  of  silk,  cotton,  and  hemp,  and  from  the  fibres  of  the 
rofia  palm  leaf,  the  aloe,  and  the  banana.  With  rude  spindles 
of  wood  and  bone,  twirled  by  the  hand,  they  spin  the  thread  ; 
and  then,  with  very  simple  looms,  they  weave  the  yarn  thus  pre- 
pared. But  the  weaving  is  regular  and  firm,  and  the  fabrics 
produced  are  excellent  in  quality. 

The  coarser  cloths  from  the  fibre  of  the  rofia  palm  not  only 
form  the  usual  clothing  of  the  poorer  classes  and  the  slaves,  but 
they  also  constitute  a  considerable  portion  of  the  exports  from 
the  eastern  side  of  the  island.  Many  thousands  of  them,  under 
the  name  of  i-abannas,  are  sent  to  Mauritius  and  Reunion,  where 
they  are  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  The  fibre  is  prepared 
from  the  fine  pinnate  leaves  of  the  rofia  palm  ;  these  are  stripped 
of  the  cuticle  above  and  below,  leaving  a  glossy,  straw-coloured 
material,  which  is  divided  into  threads  of  various  breadths,  as 
may  be  desired,  by  a  sort  of  iron  comb.  The  straw-tinted 
ground  is  varied  by  an  endless  variety  of  longitudinal  stripes, 
the  dyes  for  which  are  procured  from  coloured  earth  and  vege- 
table substances.  Very  fine  and  strong  cloths  are  also  made 
from  this  fibre  ;  some  of  these  have  the  woof  of  cotton,  obtained 
by  unravelling  English  or  American  calico. 


DECORATIVE  CARVING  ON  WOOD.  329 

A  very  favourite  cloth,  called  mindrctno,  is  made  with  a  white 
ground  of  fine  twilled  cotton,  with  narrow  stripes  of  black  and 
coloured  threads,  and  broad  borders  of  black  twilled  silk,  in 
which  is  a  central  pattern  of  colour.  These  form  the  lamba,  or 
outer  native  dress,  which  is  folded  gracefully,  something  in  the 
fashion  of  the  ancient  Roman  toga,  one  corner  being  thrown 
over  the  shoulder.  European  cottons  are  also  largely  used  by 
the  Hovas  and  the  east  coast  tribes,  a  piece  the  size  of  a  good- 
sized  sheet  or  tablecloth  forming  a  very  good  lauiba.  These 
often  have  borders  of  coloured  silk  sewn  on  to  the  ends  of  the 
stuff. 

But  the  skill  and  taste  of  the  Malagasy,  as  regards  weaving, 
are  shown  most  in  the  handsome  silk  Ictmbas,  which  are  woven 
by  the  Hova  women.  These  are  of  considerable  variety  of 
pattern  and  colouring  (within  certain  conventional  limits),  often 
very  rich  and  elegant  in  their  effect,  and  with  a  peculiar  kind  of 
square  leaf  or  flower  introduced  into  the  stripes,  and  various 
combinations  of  small  diamond-shaped  patterns.  These  silk 
Idinbas  form  a  considerable  portion  of  the  wealth  of  every 
Malagasy  family,  as  they  are  worth  from  twenty  to  fifty  dollars 
each.  They  are  only  worn  on  special  occasions,  such  as  the  New 
Year's  festival,  and  at  marriages,  &c.  Dark-red  silk  lambas  are 
used  as  the  outer  wrapping  of  a  corpse  among  the  Hovas,  no 
coffin  being  employed  for  burial,  but  a  great  number  of  cloths 
instead.  This  dark-red  lamba  also  forms  a  sort  of  official  dress 
for  the  judges  and  head-men  of  the  districts  ;  and  in  many  of 
them  fine  metal  beads  are  woven  into  the  stuff,  so  as  to  form  a 
variety  of  ornamental  patterns  across  the  ends  of  the  lamba. 
Almost  all  Hova  women,  from  the  Queen  down  to  the  slave, 
can  spin  and  weave ;  in  some  tribes,  a  girl  is  called  zaza- 
ampela,  i.e.,  "  spindle  child,"  a  close  analogy  to  our  English  word 
"  spinster." 

Straw-work. — But  besides  spinning  and  weaving,  the  dexterity 
of  the  Malagasy  women  is  seen  hardly  less  in  their  straw-plaiting. 
From  the  great  variety  of  grasses,  as  well  as  from  the  tough 


330  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

outer  peel  of  the  zozoro  (papyrus)  rush,  they  plait  many  kinds 
of  baskets,  large  and  small,  coarse  and  fine,  plain  and  coloured, 
and  also  mats  of  various  degrees  of  fineness.  Among  the 
Hovas  these  are  used  for  flooring,  and  lining  walls  and  parti- 
tions, but  among  the  Betsileo  and  south-eastern  tribes,  mats 
are  the  chief  articles  of  clothing.  Broad-brimmed  straw  hats  of 
excellent  quality  are  made  by  the  Hovas,  and  this  is  their  general 
head-dress.  A  considerable  variety  of  straw  caps  and  head- 
coverings  are  made  and  worn  by  the  other  tribes,  some  being 
peculiar  to  particular  districts.  The  straw  mats  used  for 
clothing  are  sewn  into  a  kind  of  sack,  which  is  kept  in  its 
place  by  a  girdle  of  bark  cloth.  Some  tribes  are  especially 
skilful  in  this  manufacture.  The  Sihanaka  and  Betsileo  make 
mats  of  a  great  length,  a  number  of  these  forming  part  of  the 
yearly  tribute  they  pay  to  the  Central  Government.  The  Hovas 
also  are  very  ingenious  in  making  minute  square  baskets  of 
straw,  some  of  them  not  larger  than  f-inch  cube,  in  which  the 
plait,  with  beautiful  patterns,  is  as  fine  as  the  finest  weaving. 

Bark  Cloth. — The  bark  cloth  just  mentioned,  as  used  for 
girdles,  is  made  by  the  people  of  the  south-east  coast  and  the 
forest  tribes ;  but  in  this  branch  of  handicraft  the  Malagasy 
cannot  compete  with  the  delicate  fabrics  prepared  from  the  bark 
of  trees  by  many  of  the  Polynesian  races.  The  bark  cloth  of 
the  Taimoro,  Tanala,  and  other  tribes,  is  a  coarse  reddish- 
brown  material,  of  little  strength,  except  in  the  direction  of  the 
fibre  ;  but  its  use,  as  well  as  the  non-employment  of  skins  for 
clothing,  is  one  of  the  many  links  of  connection  between  the 
Malagasy  and  the  Malayo-Polynesian  peoples,  and  serves 
(among  many  other  peculiarities)  to  mark  them  off  distinctly 
from  the  African  tribes,  who  make  such  large  use  of  the  skins 
of  animals  as  articles  of  dress. 

Metal  Work, — In  metal  work,  the  Malagasy  also  show  great 
skill  in  execution  and  ingenuity  in  design.  In  gold  and  silver 
work  the  native  smiths  make  most  fine  and  delicate  chains,  and 
they  can  produce  copies  of  any  article  of  jewellery  with  wonder- 


DECORATIVE  CARVING  ON  WOOD.  33 1 

ful  exactness.  Their  iron  work  (which  is  all  wrought,  not  cast) 
is  of  excellent  quality,  and  they  can  also  turn  out  brass  and 
copper  work  of  good  finish.  In  the  Memorial  Churches  erected 
at  the  capital  (1864- 1874),  the  ornamental  iron  work — finials, 
railings,  floriated  hinges,  &c. — were  all  executed  by  native  work- 
men. i\mong  the  Hovas,  the  smelting  and  working  of  iron 
seems  to  have  been  known  from  a  remote  antiquity  ;  and  they 
employ  the  same  double-piston  bellows  which  are  used  in  the 
Malayan  Peninsula  and  Islands.  There  seems  to  be  no  trace  of 
a  stone  age  when  iron  was  not  known  to  the  Hovas  ;  although, 
according  to  tradition,  the  aboriginal  tribe,  called  Vazimba, 
whom  they  displaced  in  the  central  province,  were  ignorant  of 
the  use  of  metal,  and  used  spears  made  of  burnt  clay,  and  of 
the  tough  wiry  bark  of  certain  palms. 

Pottery. — In  fictile  art,  the  Malagasy  are  not  so  advanced  as 
are  many  peoples  who,  in  most  other  things,  are  their  inferiors. 
Perhaps,  however,  this  arises  from  the  large  use  made  by  many 
of  the  tribes  of  vegetable  substances  and  leaves  for  plates  and 
dishes  and  waterpots,  so  that  the  necessity  for  articles  of  pottery 
has  not  been  felt ;  and  also  from  the  absence  in  the  niaritime 
plains  of  suitable  clays.  Amongst  the  peoples  who  live  in  and 
near  the  forests,  wooden  dishes  are  largely  manufactured  ;  and 
the  forest  and  coast  dwellers  also  use  the  leaves  of  the  pandanus, 
the  banana,  and  the  travellers'-tree  for  holding  food  and  liquid  ; 
while  the  jointed  and  chambered  bamboo  supplies  them  with 
vessels  for  drawing  and  storing  water.  Dishes  of  finely-woven 
straw  or  rush  are  also  employed.  But,  in  the  central  provinces, 
where  vegetable  materials  are  more  scarce,  and  where  clay  is 
abundant,  pottery  is  manufactured,  and  water  vessels  of  various 
kinds  are  produced,  as  well  as  rude  dishes,  plates,  and  cooking 
pots.  A  special  kind  of  vessel,  made  for  cooking  the  beef  at 
the  New  Year's  festival,  is  elegant  in  shape — much  like  some 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  pottery  now  and  then  found  in  ancient 
"  barrows,"  both  in  ornament  and  outline.  Some  of  the  water 
jars  are  of  fine  quality,  and  deep  red  in  colour,  like  Samian  ware. 


332  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

The  horns  of  the  fine  humped  cattle  are  manufactured  into  a 
variety  of  articles,  especially  spoons,  dishes,  and  plates.  Almost 
every  tribe  has  some  special  pattern  of  wooden  spoon  peculiar 
to  it,  some  of  which  are  very  elegant  and  beautifully  finished. 
They  are  often  ornamented  with  various  devices  burnt  in  on  the 
handles. 

Building. — In  the  building  art,  the  Malagasy,  as  a  whole,  have 
made  but  little  advance  beyond  constructing  the  small  and 
simple  dwellings  required  by  a  semi-civilised  people.  Except 
in  the  central  provinces,  the  houses  are  constructed  almost 
entirely  of  vegetable  materials,  and  without  any  metal  fasten- 
ings, all  being  tied  together  with  tough,  fibrous  plants. 

Canoes  and  Boats. — Water-carriage  is  largely  made  use  of  on 
the  rivers  and  coast  lagoons.  The  native  canoe  is  made  of  the 
hollowed-out  trunk  of  a  tree,  chiefly  the  varbngy  (^Calophylluin 
inophylluni),  and  some  of  the  canoes  are  forty  feet  long,  with 
about  three  feet  beam.  On  the  south-east  coast,  a  native  boat, 
called  sdry,  is  used.  This  is  a  built  boat  of  planks,  but  no  iron 
is  used  in  its  construction,  everything  being  tied  together  by  the 
wire-like  fibre  of  the  anivona  palm,  while  the  holes  are  plugged 
by  tree-nails  of  hard  wood.  The  seams  are  caulked  with  strips 
of  bamboo,  and  loops  of  the  same  material  form  rowlocks  for 
the  larger  oars.  The  seats  pass  right  through  the  sides,  and 
thus  stiffen  the  whole,  and  bind  it  together,  for  there  are  no  ribs 
or  framework.  These  boats  rise  up  at  the  stem  and  stern,  and 
will  carry  fifty  people,  or  a  large  quantity  of  goods.  They  are 
used  for  going  out  to  the  shipping  through  the  heavy  surf,  where 
no  canoe  could  possibly  venture.  These  ingeniously  made  boats 
have  evidently  been  in  use  for  a  considerable  period,  as  they  are 
referred  to  by  some  of  the  earliest  French  books  on  Madagascar, 
written  from  1 50  to  200  years  ago.  On  the  west  coast  outriggers 
are  adopted,  and  canoes  fitted  with  these  and  with  sails  venture 
out  to  sea  in  a  very  fearless  way.  The  natives  along  that  portion 
of  the  island  are  bold  navigators,  and  until  the  early  portion  of 
this  century,  they  were  accustomed  to  make  an  annual  piratical 


DECORATIVE  CARVING  ON  WOOD.  333 

expedition  to  the  Comoro  Islands,  in  which  hundreds  of  canoes, 
carrying  thousands  of  men,  were  employed.  Most  of  these 
must,  therefore,  have  been  boats  of  considerable  size  and 
seaworthy  properties. 

Products  and  Exports. — Besides  rice,  a  number  of  roots  and 
vegetables  are  also  cultivated  by  the  Malagasy,  the  manioc  root 
or  cassava  forming  a  considerable  portion  of  their  food,  as  well 
as  yams,  sweet-potatoes,  beans,  millet,  Indian-corn,  &c.  The 
sugar-cane  is  also  cultivated,  and  in  the  warmer  districts  grows 
to  a  great  size.  A  coarse  sugar  is  made,  but,  except  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  capital,  the  cane  is  chiefly  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  a  spirit  called  tbaka.  Coffee,  spices,  ginger, 
chillies,  tobacco,  indigo,  hemp,  and  cotton  are  also  grown,  but 
not  in  large  quantities.  There  is  a  considerable  variety  of  fruit, 
many  kinds  being  indigenous,  as  the  banana  and  plantain, 
pine-apple,  loquat,  grape,  citron,  lemon,  mulberry,  raspberry,  &c., 
and  others  introduced  by  Europeans,  as  the  peach,  mango, 
pomegranate,  guava,  and  fig. 

It  is,  however,  the  opinion  of  some  who  are  well  qualified  to 
judge  of  the  matter,  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  of  Madagascar 
as  a  whole  has  been  overrated,  and  that  it  does  not  present  as 
good  a  field  as  many  tropical  counties  for  European  settlers. 
But  bearing  this  in  mind,  there  still  is  reason  to  believe  that  in 
many  parts  of  the  island  the  soil  is  capable  of  supplying  many 
of  the  most  valuable  products  of  the  tropical  zone.  Rice,  sugar, 
coffee,  and  spices,  silk,  cotton  and  hemp,  indigo  and  tobacco, 
might  all  be  produced  in  practically  unlimited  quantities.  At 
present,  however,  rice,  sugar,  vanilla,  and  coffee  are  the  only 
articles  out  of  this  list  which  are  grown  for  exportation.  The 
cultivation  of  coffee  is  yearly  increasing,  and  numerous  small 
plantations  have  been  formed  along  the  shores  of  the  east  coast 
rivers  by  Creole  traders.  For  several  years  past  large  quantities 
of  gum-copal  and  indiarubber  have  also  been  exported,  but 
owing  to  the  reckless  manner  in  which  the  trees  supplying  the 
latter  have  been  cut  down,  it  is  feared  that  the  whole  trade  will 

I 


334  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

come  to  an  end  before  long  unless  some  steps  are  taken  to 
remedy  the  evil.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  island,  a  lichen, 
called  orseille,  which  is  valuable  for  dyeing,  is  collected  in  con- 
siderable quantities.  Ebony  and  numerous  hard  and  beautiful 
woods  resembling  teak,  rosewood,  and  mahogany,  are  found  in 
the  forests,  and  are  used  for  cabinet  work,  and  in  building, 
and  also  in  making  the  parquetry  flooring  in  the  best  class  of 
houses. 

The  most  important  item  of  export  at  present  is  cattle. 
The  colonies  of  Mauritius  and  Bourbon  derive  their  entire 
supply  of  beef  from  the  fine  humped  oxen  which  are  shipped 
by  thousands  from  the  eastern  ports.  In  later  times,  however, 
the  trade  is  leaving  somewhat  the  eastern  side  of  the  island,  the 
ships  fetching  the  cattle  from  the  north-west  coast,  owing  to 
their  greater  cheapness  in  the  Sakalava  country.  A  consider- 
able trade  has  also  sprung  up  between  the  south-west  ports  and 
Natal,  Hides  are  sent  down  in  large  quantities  from  the  interior, 
being  dried  and  salted  for  exportation.  The  valuable  woods 
found  in  the  forests  now  also  form  an  important  article  of 
trade. 


CHAPTER  XVI . 


ODD  AND  CURIOUS  EXPERIEXCES  OF  LIFE  IX 
MADAGASCAR. 

The  comic  element  everyAvhere  present — First  experiences — Native  dress — 
Borrowed  garments — Christmas  Day  exhibitions — Interruptions  at  divine 
service — A  nation  of  bald-heads — Native  houses  and  their  inmates — Recep- 
tions by  Hova  Governors — Native  feasts — Queer  articles  of  food — First 
attempts  at  speaking  Malagasy — "  Try  a  relative  " — Transfonnations  of 
English  names  —  BibHcal  names — Odd  names — English  mistakes — The 
"  southern  "  side  of  his  moustache — Funeral  presents — Church  decoration 
— Offertory  boxes — Deacons'  duties. 

THIS  world  of  ours  would  be  but  a  dull  place  to  live  in  if 
there  was  no  room  in  it  for  humour  and  fun,  and  if  we 
could  not  sometimes  indulge  in  a  good  hearty  laugh.  But 
happily  there  is  no  spot  on  its  surface  where  the  elements  of  the 
comic  and  ridiculous  are  not  present ;  and  Madagascar  certainly 
forms  no  exception  to  the  general  rule.  We  hope,  therefore,  no 
one  will  be  shocked  at  hearing  that  even  in  missionary  experiences 
there  is  occasionally  a  decided  element  of  the  amusing,  the  odd, 
and  the  absurd  ;  anyhow,  during  several  years'  residence  in  this 
island  most  people  come  across  a  few  curious  experiences,  and 
hear  of  a  good  many  more  ;  and  if  all  these  could  be  re- 
membered and  noted  down,  they  would  afford  ample  materials 
for  more  than  one  paper.  This,  however,  is  now  an  impossi- 
bility, but  perhaps  I  may  be  able  to  recall  enough  to  serve  to 
while  away  a  leisure  half-hour  ;  and  some  of  these  reminiscences 
may  perchance  throw  a  side-light  or  two  upon  certain  phases  of 
native  character  and  habits. 

One's  first  landing  in  Madagascar — especially  if  one  has  had 


336  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


no  previous  experience  of  a  semi-civilised  country — must,  I 
think,  strike  most  people  as  having  some  very  comic  aspects  : 
the  only  partially  clothed  appearance  of  so  many  of  the 
"  natives "  ;  the  often  absurd  mixture  of  European  and  other 
dress  ;  and  the  odd  gibberish,  as  it  seems  to  us,  of  an  un- 
known language — all  these  tend  to  excite  one's  amusement. 
I  vividly  remember  my  first  ride  in  a  filanjdiia  at  Tamatave, 
and  how  I  was  in  fits  of  laughter  all  the  way  from  my 
lodging  to  the  Battery  ;  the  being  carried  in  that  fashion  by 
men  struck  me  then — I  can  hardly  now  understand  why — as 
irresistibly  comic.  At  that  time — more  than  thirty  years 
ago — gentlemen  very  often  travelled  from  the  coast  to  the 
capital  in  the  long  basket-like  filanjana  which  is  never  used 
now,  nor  has  been  for  a  long  time  past,  except  by  ladies  and 
children.  In  one  of  these  contrivances  I  came  up  myself  in 
October,  1863  ;  but  I  suspect  few  gentlemen  would  now  care 
to  run  the  gauntlet  of  the  amusement  and  chaff"  they  would 
excite  by  riding  through  Antananarivo  in  a  similar  conveyance. 
Yet  even  in  1873,  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Mullens  also  travelled  up 
to  Imerina  in  a  lady's  filanjana  ;  but  it  struck  him  at  the  time 
as  rather  ridiculous,  for  he  said  how  it  reminded  him  of  one  of 
Leech's  pictures  in  Punch,  of  a  London  exquisite  driving  a  very 
small  basket  carriage,  and  being  saluted  by  a  street  gamin  with 
the  words,  "  Oh,  Bill,  here's  a  cove  a-drivin'  hisself  home  from 
the  wash." 

I  referred  just  now  to  the  oddness  of  native  dress,  especially 
when  only  portions  of  European  costume  are  used.  One  sees 
some  absurd  enough  sights  now  and  then,  even  at  the  present 
time,  in  Antananarivo,  but  these  are  nothing  compared  with  the 
ridiculous  combinations  which  often  met  one's  view  a  few  years 
ago.  To  see  a  company  of  native  officers  come  up  from  the 
parade  ground  in  all  their  variety  of  dress  was  a  very  mirth- 
provoking  spectacle.  If  a  hundred  or  two  of  men  had  been 
fitted  out  from  an  extensive  old-clothes'  shop,  with  the  object  of 
making  every  one  different  from  every  one  else,  it  could  hardly 


A  HOVA  OFFICER,  .MALAGASY  AKMV. 


4 


ODD  AND  CURIOUS  EXPERIENCES  OF  MALAGASY  LIFE.  337 


have  produced  a  greater  variety  or  have  had  a  more  bizarre 
effect  than  was  actually  the  case.  All  sorts  of  cast-off  uniforms  ; 
every  kind  and  shape  of  hat,  from  the  smartest  to  the  shabbiest 
(the  "  shocking  bad  "  not  excepted) ;  every  imaginable  civilian 
dress,  policeman's,  fireman's,  &c. — all  might  be  seen,  and  in  the 
queerest  combinations,  often  finished  off  by  the  commonest  of 
green  and  red  woollen  comforters.  The  sharp  observation  of  a 
friend  of  mine  (of  the  Society  of  Friends)  even  detected  in  an 
Andohalo  crowd  the  low-crowned  "  broad  brims  "  once  belonging 
to  some  good  East  Anglian  Quaker  farmers,  and  pronounced 
that  they  must  certainly  have  often  figured  in  the  sedate  pro- 
ceedings of  "an  Essex  Quarterly  Meeting."  One  of  the  richest 
points  in  these  exhibitions  was  the  extreme  self-consciousness 
of  the  wearers  of  these  wonderful  suits,  and  their  evident  pride 
in  their  personal  appearance,  together  with  the  serene  conviction 
that  they  were  cutting  a  great  dash.^ 

In  the  earlier  years  of  the  residence  of  those  of  us  who  have 
lived  here  longest  we  can  remember  what  curious  notions  our 
native  friends  and  our  house  servants  had  about  borrowing  (with 
and  without  our  leave)  our  clothes.  Requests  from  the  former 
to  borrow  one's  best  "  go-to-meeting  "  suit  to  wear  at  weddings, 
either  their  own  or  that  of  some  relative,  or  on  other  festive 
occasions,  used  to  be  very  frequent ;  and  it  took  a  good  many 
refusals  and  a  good  deal  of  persistence  before  they  could  be  got 
to  understand  that  such  loans  were  not  congenial  to  our  feelings. 
Our  servants,  however,  did  not  always  take  the  trouble  to  ask 
leave,  but  would  borrow  coat,  trousers,  or  shirt ;  and  we 
occasionally  had  the  pleasure  of  discovering  portions  of  our 
own  dress  on  the  back  of  cook  or  house  boy,  as  we  sat  at 
church,  or  on  the  way  home.    With  new  servants  it  was  a 

^  It  must,  however,  be  said  that  a  great  improvement  has  taken  place  during 
the  hist  few  years  in  all  these  particulars,  largely  through  the  efforts  of  the  English 
officers  who  have  been  engaged  in  training  the  Malagasy  army.  Most  of  the 
native  officers  are  now^  dressed  in  neat  and  appropriate  uniforms,  and  very  many 
have  a  thoroughly  soldierly  bearing  ;  while  the  simple  white  uniform  of  the  rank 
and  file  has  replaced  the  cross-belts  and  loin-cloth  which  formed  the  sole  dress 
of  the  common  soldiers  not  many  years  ago. 

23 


338  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

common  thing-  to  borrow  a  tablecloth  as  a  lamba ;  and 
more  than  once  the  mistress  of  the  house  has  been  horrified, 
as  her  attention  has  wandered  a  little  from  the  eloquence  of 
the  preacher,  to  recognise  the  familiar  pattern  of  her  best  diaper 
table-linen  enfolding  the  form  of  one  of  her  domestics  sitting 
not  far  from  her.  It  is  well  known,  too,  that  some  of  our 
washerwomen  have  made  quite  a  business  of  letting  out  shirts, 
trousers,  &c.,  as  well  as  various  articles  of  female  dress,  belong- 
ing to  their  English  clients,  to  native  customers  for  Sunday- 
wear,  and  so  adding  to  the  legitimate  profits  of  their  business. 
In  such  cases  also,  we  have  occasionally  had  the  gratification  of 
seeing  at  church  how  well  our  own  garments  have  fitted  native 
wearers  of  the  same. 

In  our  congregations  of  a  few  years  ago  there  was  a 
primitive  simplicity  about  dress  which  would  rather  astonish  us 
nowadays.  I  well  remember  being  amused  by  this  one  Sunday 
at  the  old  Ambatonakanga  chapel.  In  the  middle  of  the 
sermon  a  little  boy  of  three  or  four  years  old,  and  perfectly 
naked,  came  to  the  door  and  looked  about  to  find  his  mother 
among  the  people  closely  crowded  together  on  the  matted  floor 
of  the  building.  Presently  she  noticed  the  little  urchin,  and 
taking  his  tiny  lamba  which  lay  beside  her,  she  rolled  it  up 
into  a  ball  and  tossed  it  to  him  over  the  heads  of  her  neigh- 
bours. The  child  quietly  unfolded  it  and,  wrapping  it  about 
him  with  all  the  dignity  of  a  grown-up  person,  gravely  marched 
to  his  place,  without  any  one,  I  think,  but  myself  taking  any 
notice  of  the  incident.  On  special  occasions,  however,  our 
congregations  used  to  turn  out  in  gorgeous  array,  the  ladies  in 
silks  and  satins  and  wonderful  head-dresses,  and  the  men  in 
black  coats  and  pantaloons  and  "  chimney-pot "  hats  ;  so  that 
it  was  for  some  little  time  quite  impossible  to  recognise  one's 
most  intimate  acquaintance  in  their  unaccustomed  "get-up." 
Christmas  Days  were  the  chief  of  these  high  festivals  ;  and  I 
well  remember  how,  on  my  first  Christmas  Day  in  Antananarivo, 
I  was  utterly  "  taken  aback  "  on  entering  the  dark  and  dingy  old 


ODD  AND  CURIOUS  EXPERIENCES  OF  MALAGASY  LIFE.  339 

chapel  at  Ambatonakanga  to  find  such  a  transformation  scene  ; 
for  instead  of  the  clean  white  lambas,  which  did  somewhat 
brighten  up  the  place  on  ordinary  occasions,  my  native  friends 
seemed  to  be  darker  than  ever  in  their  dark  cloth  clothes,  and 
utterly  (and  comically)  uncomfortable  in  their  unusual  finery. 
A  little  before  my  arrival  here  European  dress  was  much  more 
commonly  worn  by  the  well-to-do  Malagasy  than  was  the  case 
after  the  decease  of  Radama  II.,  and  the  ladies'  crinolines  were, 
at  more  than  one  of  our  chapels,  slipped  off  at  the  door  and 
hung  up  on  a  nail  outside  in  charge  of  one  of  the  deacons. 
There  were  few  raised  seats  in  those  days,  and  it  was  difficult  to 
make  the  steel  hoops,  &c.,  lie  comfortably  or  gracefully  while 
their  wearer  was  squatting  on  the  floor.  Then,  of  course,  there 
was  a  considerable  wriggling  and  contriving  to  get  into  them 
again,  as  the  congregation  dispersed,  as  I  have  witnessed  on 
more  than  one  occasion.  Another  curious  sight  as  people  left 
church  used  to  be  the  taking  off  of  smart  pairs  of  boots,  which 
gradually  became  too  irksome  to  feet  unaccustomed  to  such 
restraint,  and  were  carried  by  their  owners  either  in  their  hand 
or  suspended  to  a  stick  over  their  shoulder.  The  wearer  having 
sacrificed  his  (or  her)  feelings  to  genteel  appearances  during 
service-time,  would  again  rejoice  in  freedom  from  convention- 
alities on  the  walk  home. 

Native  churches  certainly  deserve  credit  for  reverence  and 
general  propriety  of  behaviour  during  divine  service.  In  some 
newly  formed  congregations,  however,  curiosity  occasionally  gets 
the  better  of  the  proprieties  ;  thus  my  friend  the  Rev.  J.  Pearse 
was  once  interrupted  in  the  middle  of  an  earnest  discourse  by  a 
woman  who  was  determined  to  know  whether  he  would  not  sell 
her  a  smart  green  sunshade  he  happened  to  have  with  him, 
and  how  much  he  wanted  for  it.  And  it  was  not  without  con- 
siderable effort  and  coaxing  that  the  good  lady  was  at  length 
induced  to  defer  her  inquiries  to  a  later  period  of  the  proceedings. 
During  a  tour  to  the  south-east  coast  in  1876,  I  was  preaching 
one  Sunday  afternoon  in  the  centre  of  a  village  on  the  banks  of 


340  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

the  river  Matitanana,  and  was  a  little  confused,  when  about 
half  through  my  address,  by  the  old  chief  of  the  place 
coming  forward  to  give  me  a  fowl  —  which  clucked  and 
struggled  most  noisily  in  the  process — and  also  a  bottle  of 
rum,  which  was  handed  up  in  full  view  of  the  audience. 
It  was  a  little  difficult  to  resume  the  thread  of  the  dis- 
course. This,  however,  be  it  remembered,  was  in  a  heathen 
village. 

I  was  speaking  just  now  of  clothing — and  of  the  occasional 
want  of  it — among  the  Malagasy.  There  are,  however — but 
perhaps  it  would  now  be  more  correct  to  say  there  were — 
occasions  happening  now  and  then  when  even  the  natural 
covering  of  the  body,  the  hair  of  the  head,  was  not  to  be 
seen.  At  the  decease  of  a  Malagasy  sovereign,  one  of  the 
customs  which  have  been  enforced  up  to  the  death  of  Queen 
Rasoherina  (in  1868)  was,  that  every  person,  high  and  low,  rich 
and  poor,  male  and  female  (with  a  few  exceptions  in  the  case 
of  the  very  highest  personages  in  the  kingdom),  must  shave  the 
head.  As  may  be  supposed,  the  effect  of  this  was  most  curious; 
one's  most  familiar  native  friends  seemed  totally  altered  and 
unrecognisable,  for  no  hat  or  other  head  covering  could  be  used. 
One  of  my  brother  missionaries  wrote  to  me  :  "  On  Friday 
morning  (April  3,  1868)  the  people  presented  a  very  strange 
spectacle.  They  looked  as  if  they  had  been  suddenly  trans- 
formed into  Hindoos  ;  we  found  a  nation  of  bald-heads,  some 
of  them  quite  glossy.  It  was  amusing  to  meet  our  friends,  as 
in  many  cases  we  did  not  recognise  them  until  they  spoke  to 
us.  A  man  walked  up  into  the  town  with  me  in  the  morning, 
and  from  his  familiarity  I  conclude  he  was  a  man  I  had  known 
very  well  ;  but  I  did  not  find  out  who  he  was,  and  have  not 
been  able  to  recall  his  identity  since.  The  strangest  part  of  the 
business  was  that  the  clipping  was  all  done  at  once,  for  on 
Friday  morning  the  entire  country  round  Antananarivo  was 
was  clean  clipped,  except  some  score  or  so  of  privileged 
Malagasy  and  the  Europeans."    At  the  decease  of  the  late 


ODD  AND  CURIOUS  EXPERIENCES  OF  MALAGASY  LIFE.  34 1 

Queen  Ranavalona  II.,  however,  this  custom  was  not  enforced  ; 
probably  it  will  not  be  again  revived. 

Native  houses  are  not  as  a  rule  at  all  desirable  places  to  stay 
in.  In  the  central  provinces  of  Madagascar  they  are  certainly 
dirtier  and  more  uncomfortable  than  on  the  coast  or  in  the 
forest  regions,  where  the  entirely  vegetable  materials  employed 
— bamboo,  traveller's-tree,  or  palm  leaves  and  bark — and  the 
greater  dimensions,  make  the  houses  there  very  passable  as 
temporary  resting-places.  But  the  clay  or  wooden  houses  of 
the  Hova,  Betsileo,  and  other  interior  tribes  are  almost  always 
dirty  and  infested  with  vermin  ;  and  "  A  Night  with  the  Fleas," 
or  with  the  rats,  or  the  mosquitoes,  or  the  pigs,  or  the  poultry, 
or  all  of  them  put  together,  is  one  of  the  common  experiences 
of  Madagascar  travelling.  Fleas  of  extraordinary  agility  seem 
able  to  mount  to  the  highest  stretcher  bedsteads  it  is  convenient 
to  use,  and  make  night  one  long-continued  attempt  to  ignore 
their  ubiquitous  presence.  Rats  descend  from  the  roof  and 
perform  marvellous  acrobatic  feats  over  rafters  and  cords,  play- 
fully running  races  over  one's  person  and  even  one's  face,  with  a 
loud  squeaking  and  squabbling  which  rouses  us  up  with  a  start 
in  the  few  intervals  of  unconsciousness  allowed  by  the  lesser 
plagues.  Mosquitoes  often  come  in  with  a  hum  like  a  small 
swarm  of  bees,  and  unless  one  is  provided  with  netting,  make  all 
attempts  at  sleep  futile ;  and  even  if  the  net  has  been  carefully 
tucked  around  one,  two  or  three  stragglers  often  get  in  and 
make  the  net  a  very  questionable  benefit,  as  effectually  keeping 
in  some  of  the  tormentors  as  it  keeps  out  their  companions. 
Pigs  being  often  domiciled  in  the  house,  resent  their  exclusion 
on  the  night  of  your  stay,  and  break  through  the  slight  barriers 
you  put  up  against  their  entrance  with  a  grunting  defiance  of 
your  intrusion  into  their  domains  ;  or  if  they  do  not  get  into 
the  house,  they  will  persist  in  settling  down  under  it,  as  the 
floors  are  often  raised  above  the  ground.  An  equal  maintenance 
of  vested  interests  is  shown  by  the  fowls,  who  will  not  under- 
stand that  you  have  engaged  the  apartments  for  your  exclusive 


342  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

use,  and  again  and  again  will  manage  to  get  in  to  their  accus- 
tomed corner,  raising  a  terrible  dust  as  you  attempt  to  dislodge 
them.  For,  besides  the  dirt  on  the  floors,  and  the  blackened 
mats  on  the  walls,  old  houses  are  also  liberally  provided  with 
strings  of  soot  hanging  from  the  rafters,  or  from  the  rough  upper 
story  often  formed  in  the  roof.  Such  ornaments  are  considered 
by  the  Malagasy  as  an  honourable  distinction,  a  sort  of  cer- 
tificate of  an  old  and  long-established  family.  But  they  are 
rather  inconvenient  in  case  of  a  sudden  gust  of  wind,  or  a  heavy 
shower  of  rain,  or  in  ejecting  a  persistent  hen  and  chickens,  as 
just  mentioned.  A  plentiful  sprinkling  of  soot-flakes  on  bedding 
and  clothes,  on  tablecloth  and  provisions,  is,  of  course,  the 
result  of  any  of  these  incidents  in  your  stay  in  many  a  native 
house. 

In  going  about  most  parts  of  Madagascar  we  come  now 
and  then  to  some  more  important  places,  military  stations  and 
centres  of  districts,  where  Hova  governors  are  stationed.  These 
officials  are  usually  very  kind  and  hospitable,  but  it  is  sometimes 
very  amusing  to  see  the  state  and  ceremony  they  keep  up.  The 
military  force  under  their  command  is  often  very  limited,  and 
frequently  it  is  impossible  to  get  together  any  but  a  very  small 
proportion  of  even  the  few  soldiers  they  have  at  their  disposal. 
But  as  soon  as  they  hear  of  your  approach  (for  it  is  considered 
courteous  to  send  on  word  in  advance),  some  of  the  subordinate 
officers  are  drawn  up  to  receive  you,  together  with  as  many 
soldiers  as  they  can  muster  (often  more  officers  than  rank  and 
file,  e.g.,  four  officers  and  two  soldiers).  As  soon  as  you  make 
your  appearance,  a  great  many  words  of  command  are  shouted 
out,  all  in  English,  or  at  least  as  near  an  approach  to  that 
language  as  they  can  manage  ;  the  Queen  is  saluted,  then  the 
Prime  Minister,  then  the  governor  at  the  place,  and  then  the 
second  in  command,  together  with  the  playing  of  any  music 
they  have  available  and  the  beating  of  drums ;  and  not  until 
then  is  it  etiquette  for  your  own  presence  to  be  recognised  and 
for  you  to  be  welcomed.    Coming  into  the  rbva  or  government 


ODD  AND  CURIOUS  EXPERIENCES  OF  MALAGASY  LIFE.  343 

house,  the  governor  gives  you  a  hearty  shake  of  the  hand  and, 
as  soon  as  you  are  seated,  commences  a  long  and  formal  list  of 
inquiries,  which  runs  somewhat  as  follows :  "  Since  you,  our 
friends  and  relatives,  have  arrived,  we  ask  you  :  How  is  Ranava- 
lomanjaka.  Sovereign  of  the  land  ?  How  is  Rainilaiarivony, 
Prime  Minister  and  Commander-in-Chief?  How  is  So-and-so, 
Secretary  of  State  ?  ^  How  is  the  kingdom  of  Amb6himanga 
and  Antananarivo  ?  How  are  the  cannon  ?  How  are  the  guns  ? 
How  are  the  Christians  ?  "  &c.,  &c.  (Often  the  queries  are  much 
more  numerous,  including  any  governor  higher  in  rank  than  the 
questioner  whom  we  may  have  recently  seen  ;  and  I  remember 
that  in  going  round  the  Antsihanaka  province,  a  little  two- 
pounder  brass  cannon  at  Amparafaravola  was  carefully  inquired 
after.  All  these  inquiries  must  be  severally  and  gravely  replied 
to,  including  assurances  of  the  well-being  of  the  cannon  and  the 
guns  (muskets). 

Native  feasts  are  often  amusing  occasions,  sometimes  being 
very  lengthy  and  occasionally  very  noisy.  I  shall  not  soon 
forget  one  at  Ankarana  (in  the  Taimoro  country)  given  in  my 
honour.  The  dinner  there  was,  I  think,  the  longest,  and  certainly 
was  the  noisiest  entertainment  at  which  I  have  ever  assisted.  It 
consisted  of  the  following  courses  : — ist,  curry  ;  2nd,  goose  ;  3rd, 
roast  pork :  4th,  pigeons  and  waterfowl ;  5th,  fowl  cutlets  and 
poached  eggs ;  6th,  beef  sausages  ;  7th,  boiled  tongue ;  8th, 
sardines;  9th,  pigs'  trotters;  lOth,  fried  bananas;  nth,  pan- 
cakes ;  1 2th,  boiled  manioc  ;  13th,  dried  bananas  ;  and  last,  when 
I  thought  everything  must  have  been  served,  came  hunches  of 
roast  beef  By  taking  a  constantly  diminishing  quantity  of 
each  dish  I  managed  to  appear  to  do  some  justice  to  them  all. 
The  healths  of  the  Queen,  "  our  friends  the  two  Foreigners," 
then  those  of  the  Prime  Minister  and  chief  officers  of  State  were 
all  drunk  twice  over,  all  followed  by  musical  (and  drum)  honours. 
As  already  remarked,  it  was  a  very  noisy  occasion,  for  there  was 
a  big  drum  just  outside  in  the  verandah,  as  well  as  two  small 
*  Other  chief  officers  of  Government  are  occasionally  mentioned. 


344  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

ones,  with  clarionets  and  fiddles,  and  these  were  in  full  play 
almost  all  the  time.  Then  the  room  was  filled  by  a  crowd  of 
inferior  officers  and  servants,  and  the  shouting  of  everybody  to 
everybody  else,  from  the  governor  downwards,  was  deafening. 
It  was  a  relief  when  the  two  hours'  proceedings  came  at  last  to 
a  conclusion. 

A  good  deal  might  be  said  about  the  queer  articles  of  food 
occasionally  used  by  the  Malagasy.  Locusts,  divested  of  their 
wings  and  legs  and  dried  in  the  sun,  are  very  largely  eaten  and 
may  be  seen  in  heaps  in  almost  every  market.  Besides  these, 
certain  kinds  of  moths  are  also  used  for  food,  as  well  as  the 
chrysalides  of  various  insects,  different  species  of  beetle,  and 
even  some  sorts  of  spiders  !  I  must  confess,  however,  that  my 
information  as  to  these  delicacies  is  all  second-hand  !  I  could 
never  bring  myself  to  try  these  bonnes  touches,  so  much 
esteemed  by  my  native  friends. 

A  very  fruitful  source  of  amusement  (to  those  who  have  had  a 
longer  knowledge  of  the  language)  is  the  unavoidable  ignorance 
of  Malagasy  on  the  part  of  new-comers  and  the  absurd  mistakes 
arising  therefrom.  I  fear  that  very  often  we  say  some  shocking 
things  in  preaching  and  public  speaking  during  the  earlier  years 
of  our  residence  in  the  country ;  that  we  say  innumerable 
ridiculous  things  goes  without  saying ;  and  were  it  not  that  the 
Malagasy  have  not  (at  least  so  I  think)  a  very  quick  sense  of  the 
ludicrous,  and  are  also  very  tolerant  to  the  mistakes  foreigners 
make,  our  congregations  must  certainly  during  our  early 
attempts  be  often  convulsed  with  laughter.  Very  seldom,  how- 
ever, do  we  see  anything  of  the  kind  ;  and  I  often  think  that  old 
European  residents  see  a  vast  deal  more  that  is  absurd  in  the 
attempts  of  newer  arrivals  than  do  the  Malagasy  themselves.  A 
venerable  missionary,  deservedly  honoured  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  the  re-establishment  of  the  L,M.S.  Mission  in  Mada- 
gascar, used  every  Sunday  to  thank  God  that  He  had  given  us 
another  Day  of  Judgment !  using  the  word  fitsarana  (judgment) 
for  fitsahdrana  (rest).    On  another  occasion  he,  quite  innocently, 


ODD  AND  CURIOUS  EXPERIENCES  OF  MALAGASY  LIFE.  345 


used  over  and  over  again  in  a  sermon  a  word  which,  as  he  pro- 
nounced it,  meant  something  extremely  offensive  ;  at  last  even 
the  Malagasy  could  stand  it  no  longer,  and  the  women  began  to 
go  out  ;  the  preacher  could  not  understand  this  and  repeated 
the  word  with  redoubled  emphasis,  adding,  Aza  mivoaka,  ?j 
sakaiza "  ("  Don't  go  out,  friends ")  which  they,  all  the  more, 
would  continue  doing.  Another  brother  informed  his  audience 
that  God  was  the  "  midwife  of  all  living  things,"  using  the  word 
majnpivelona  (velona,  living),  which  is  only  used  in  that  sense, 
instead  of  mamelona,  which  means  to  support,  nourish,  or  keep 
alive ;  the  two  prefixes  having  come  to  express  two  very  different 
ideas.  Those  who  were  present  at  a  Congregational  Union 
Meeting  a  few  years  ago  still  remember  with  amusement  how  an 
earnest  brother  jumped  up,  and  in  a  stentorian  voice  shouted 
out,  "  Solika  sy  ratio  :  tsy  azo  avipifangaroharoina  izy  roroa  "  {i.e.^ 
"  Oil  and  water  :  they  cannot  be  mixed  "),  but  by  his  putting 
the  accent  in  solika  in  the  wrong  place  he  produced  a  most 
comical  impression.  But  such  anecdotes  could  be  given  almost 
to  any  extent,  and  similar  mistakes  need  not  be  further  dwelt 
upon. 

It  is  well  known  to  all  who  have  studied  Malagasy  that  for  a 
long  time  the  "  relative "  form  of  the  verb  is  one  of  the  most 
puzzling  features  of  the  language.  Several  years  ago,  when  the 
facilities  for  learning  Malagasy  were  far  less  than  they  are  now, 
some  of  us  were  much  amused  by  the  announcement  made 
by  a  more  recently  arrived  brother  one  Sunday  morning,  that 
he  was  "  going  to  try  a  '  relative '  to-day."  It  was  evidently 
still  a  very  unfamiliar  form  to  him.  Another  brother,  after  being 
much  bothered  and  perplexed  by  the  intricacies  of  this  ''pons 
asinoriivi "  of  the  language,  decided  upon  a  short  and  easy  road 
out  of  the  difficulty ;  he  determined  to  stick  to  the  active  and 
passive  forms  and  to  ignore  the  annoying  "  relative  "  altogether  ! 

Another  frequent  source  of  queer  mistakes  is  the  difficulty,  to 
Malagasy  tongues,  of  pronouncing  our  English  names.  These 
are  often  so  altered  both  in  writing  them  and  in  speaking  them 


346  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

that  they  become  utterly  unrecognisable  by  the  uninitiated. 
Who,  for  instance,  could  detect  under  the  form  Mhiteritbri- 
nerina  the  simple  English  name  "  Mr.  Thome "  ?  or  in  the 
word  Itsdridisaonina,  the  name  of  "  Richardson  "  ?  The  names 
*'  Briggs  "  and  "  Jukes  "  and  "  Sims "  are  less  altered  in  their 
Malagasy  forms,  Birlngiti^a"  Jbkitral'  and  Shnpitral'  but 
are  still  funny  enough.  Our  distinctive  titles  of  respect,  Mr., 
Mrs.,  and  Miss,  are  very  difficult  for  the  Malagasy  to  distin- 
guish ;  and  so  "  Miss  Craven  "  becomes  "  Misitera  Giravy  "  ;  and 
"  Craven,"  "  Graham,"  and  "  Graves  "  can  hardly  be  recognised 
as  having  any  difference  ;  while  "  Wilson  "  and  "  Wills  "  are 
continually  confounded  together.  I  well  remember  how  an- 
noyed my  wife  was,  during  our  early  time  of  residence  at 
Ambohimanga,  by  the  native  pastor  inquiring  for  me  as 
"  James."  He  had  heard  my  wife  address  me  thus,  and  there- 
fore concluded  that  it  was  the  proper  way  for  him  to  speak  of 
me.  The  Malagasy  have  no  exact  equivalent  for  our  Mr.,  Mrs., 
&:c.,  for  their  name-prefixes  Ra-  and  Andrian-  are  inseparable 
parts  of  their  proper  names.  Official  names  also  suffer  curious 
transformations  ;  thus  "  bishop  "  becomes  "  besopy  "  (lit.,  "  much 
soup  ")  and  "  besbmpyl'  while  in  Betsileo  it  figures  as  "  besbfina  " 
(lit,  "  great  eared  "  !).  Strangely  too,  not  only  are  Episcopalian 
clergymen  all  styled  "  besopy^'  but  their  adherents  also  are 
distinguished  from  other  Christians  by  the  same  name  ;  each 
and  all  are  "bishops."  In  the  same  way,  also,  students  at  the 
College  are  called  "  kolejy^'  and  scholars  are  called  "  sekbly "  ; 
they  are  themselves  colleges  and  schools  !  The  French  Resi- 
dent soon  became  known  in  the  country  districts  as  resian- 
ddnitra^  which,  literally  translated,  would  mean  "conquered  in 
heaven  "  !  The  name  of  the  famous  prime  minister  of  Prussia, 
Prince  Bismarck,  has  actually  become  a  Malagasy  word  as  an 
equivalent  for  cunning,  craft,  in  the  form  of  bizy :  "  manao  bizy  " 
is  "  to  act  craftily."  This  phrase  originated  in  the  time  of  the 
Franco-Prussian  war,  when  the  fame  of  Bismarck  first  reached 
this  country. 


ODD  AND  CURIOUS  EXPERIENCES  OF  MALAGASY  LIFE.  347 

While  speaking  of  words  introduced  by  Europeans  into  the 
Malagasy  language,  a  word  or  two  may  be  said  about  other 
proper  names,  chiefly  Scriptural  ones,  which  have  become 
thoroughly  naturalised  here.  Many  of  these  have  taken 
curious  forms,  and  this  chiefly  arises  from  the  fact  that  oral 
instruction  came  first,  some  time  indeed  before  these  Bible 
names  had  to  be  printed.  It  would  appear  as  if  the  first 
missionaries,  in  conversing  with  the  Malagasy  about  the  Saviour 
of  the  world,  had  very  naturally  spoken  of  Him  by  the  same 
name,  pronounced  in  the  same  way,  as  that  which  they  and  all 
English-speaking  peoples  use.  They  apparently  did  not  con- 
sider what  would  be  the  most  correct  form  of  this  sacred  name, 
as  well  as  of  other  names,  that  is,  the  nearest  representation  of 
their  Greek  originals.  And  so  the  English  form  "  Jesus  Christ  " 
came  to  be  Jesosy  Kraisty "  in  Malagasy,  a  tolerably  close 
reproduction  of  our  pronunciation  of  it  ;  while  Jeso  Kristo  "  (or 
"  leso  Kristo  "  would  no  doubt  have  been  more  correct.  In  the 
Revised  New  Testament,  "  Kristy "  has  been  substituted  for 
Kraisty,  but  the  older  pronunciation  holds  its  own.  In  some 
of  the  books  formerly  issued  by  the  Jesuit  Mission,  the  French 
pronunciation  of  the  Redeemer's  name  was  phonetically  repro- 
duced thus,  Jeso-Kry "  !  but  in  their  later  publications  the 
spelling  of  the  sacred  name  has  been  approximated  to  that 
employed  in  Protestant  books.  Other  curious  words  w^hich  have 
now  become  naturalised  in  Malagasy  are  Jews  {not  "  Jew "), 
written  ''Jiosy''  and  pronounced  exactly  like  "juice";  and 
Gentiles  {not  "  Gentile  "),  written  Jentilisa'' ;  so  that  the  Mala- 
gasy speak  of  one  Jews,  and  of  one  Gentiles ! 

Many  English  names  have  become  naturalised  among  the 
Malagasy,  especially  the  names  of  some  of  the  missionaries 
resident  among  them.  Thus  we  find  Rajaonsona  (Mr.  Johnson), 
Raoilisona  (Mr.  Wilson),  and  Rasoelina  (Mr.  Sewell).  On  one 
occasion  a  missionary  was  conducting  service  at  a  country 
chapel,  and  at  the  close  was  requested  to  baptise  an  infant.  On 
asking  the  name  of  the  child,  he  was  startled  and  not  a  little 


348  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

confused  by  the  parents  giving  his  own  name  (Christian  and 
surname  included)  as  the  one  he  was  to  give  to  the  young 
neophyte.  One  of  the  oddest  names  I  have  heard  of  is  Rade- 
boka,  which  I  am  assured  was  taken  from  the  title  of  the  "  day- 
book "  which  the  parents  had  seen  in  the  Hospital !  Another 
odd  name  is  Ramosejaofera,  in  which  we  have,  first  the  native 
name  prefix  Ra,  then  the  French  "  monsieur,''  altered  to  mose^ 
and  finally  the  native  name  Jaofera.  An  absurd  mistake  arising 
from  ignorance  of  Malagasy  is  perpetuated  on  the  title-page  of  a 
Malagasy  vocabulary  published  in  England  some  years  ago,  but 
prepared  by  three  young  native  officers,  one  of  whom  has  been 
for  several  years  past  governor  of  Tamatave.  The  English 
editor  apparently  intended  to  describe  it  as  "  a  book  (Mai.  boky) 
written  by  Rabezandrina "  and  his  companions  ;  instead  of 
which  it  reads,  "  Boka  no  anarany  Rabezandrina^'  &c.,  &c., 
which  is  literally,  "  Lepers  are  the  names  of  Rabezandrina,"  &c. 
The  three  authors  were  long  known  to  some  of  us  as  "  the  three 
lepers." 

But  it  is  not  the  Malagasy  only  who  make  absurd  mistakes 
about  names  unfamiliar  to  them.  It  is  known  to  many  in 
England  who  have  friends  in  Madagascar  that  the  name  by 
which  we  missionaries  and  other  foreigners  are  designated 
by  the  natives  here  is  "  Vazaha."  But  a  worthy  minister  in 
England,  who  had  got  hold  of  the  term,  slightly  mistook  its 
exact  meaning ;  and,  supposing  it  to  be  the  name  of  a  division 
of  the  Malagasy  people,  he  gravely  informed  his  hearers  at  a 
public  meeting  that  "  the  Vazaha  are  a  tribe  in  Madagascar  who 
are  still  but  imperfectly  acquainted  with  the  Gospel !  "  Many 
native  customs  strike  us  as  very  odd,  and  doubtless  not  less  so 
do  many  of  our  customs  appear  to  the  Malagasy.  Thus  they 
are  accustomed  to  employ  the  points  of  the  compass  in  speaking 
of  the  positions  of  things  in  the  house,  where  we  should  say,  "  to 
the  left"  or  "to  the  right,"  or  "in  front  of  you"  or  "behind 
you."  One  of  my  brother  missionaries  was  once  dining  with 
a  native  friend,  and  while  eating  some  rice,  a  portion  happened 


ODD  AND  CURIOUS  EXPERIENCES  OF  MALAGASY  LIFE.  349 


to  adhere  to  his  moustache.  His  host  politely  called  his 
attention  to  the  circumstance,  and  on  my  friend  wiping  the 
wrong  side,  his  entertainer  cried,  "  No,  no !  it's  on  the  southern 
side  of  your  moustache ! "  It  sometimes  takes  a  little  time 
for  our  Malagasy  friends  to  understand  our  ways.  Thus  I 
remember  that  when  living  at  Ambohimanga  we  were  visited 
one  day  by  an  old  friend  who  happened  to  be  then  staying  at 
the  ancient  capital.  After  a  little  conversation  my  wife  brought 
out  a  good-sized  plum-cake,  and  cutting  a  slice  or  two  offered  it 
to  him.  To  her  great  astonishment  he  quietly  took — not  a 
slice — but,  the  whole  of  the  cake  !  and  commenced  eating  it. 
But  finding  himself,  after  a  little  time,  rather  embarrassed  by  its 
quantity,  and  that  it  was  a  good  deal  more  than  he  could  then 
comfortably  manage,  he  gradually  stowed  it  away  in  his  pockets, 
remarking  that  his  children  would  like  it  We  altered  our  way 
of  handing  cake  to  native  friends  from  that  date. 

The  native  custom  of  giving  and  expecting  bits  of  money  on 
all  imaginable  occasions  seems  very  odd  to  Europeans.  At 
births  and  marriages,  at  deaths  and  funerals,  when  ill  or  when 
getting  better,  at  the  New  Year,  when  building  a  house  or  when 
constructing  a  tomb,  when  going  on  a  journey  or  on  returning 
from  one,  in  times  of  joy  or  in  times  of  sorrow — at  each  and  all 
of  them  these  wretched  little  bits  of  cut-money  are  expected 
from  visitors.  It  is  true  that  at  funerals  a  return  is  made  in  the 
shape  of  presents  of  beef ;  and  the  solemnities  of  death  and 
mourning  are  mixed  up  with  the — to  us — very  incongruous 
elements  of  the  slaughter-house  and  the  butcher's-shop.  But  if 
one  leaves  before  the  oxen  are  killed,  a  present  of  poultry 
instead  of  beef  is  made ;  and  I  have  more  than  once  come 
home  from  a  funeral,  or,  at  least,  from  the  preliminary  "  lying- 
in-state,"  with  a  goose  or  a  duck  dangling  from  the  poles  of 
my  palanquin. 

Some  curious  things  are  seen  by  those  who  travel  much  about 
Madagascar  in  the  way  of  church  decoration.  (I  am  here,  it 
should  be  said,  speaking  almost  exclusively  of  buildings  erected. 


350  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

by  congregations  in  connection,  at  least  nominally,  with  the 
L.M.S.)  When  it  is  remembered  that  these  number  more  than 
1,200,  and  are  scattered  over  a  very  wide  extent  of  country, 
some  missionaries  having  as  many  as  seventy,  eighty,  or  ninety  of 
these  under  their  nominal  charge,  it  will  be  clear  that  to  only  a 
very  small  proportion  of  them  can  he  give  any  personal  atten- 
tion or  advice  as  to  their  construction  or  adornment.  As  it  is, 
it  is  only  in  the  case  of  the  villages  nearest  to  his  station,  and 
here  and  there  at  important  centres,  that  an  English  missionary 
can  do  much  to  guide  and  advise  country  church  builders.  The 
majority  of  village  churches  are  therefore  entirely  the  product  of 
native  skill,  and  their  decoration  the  outcome  of  native  taste. 
In  many  cases,  especially  in  some  of  the  districts  nearest  to 
Antananarivo,  the  village  churches  are  models  of  what  such 
places  should  be  ;  and  with  their  glass  windows,  their  neatly 
coloured  interiors,  and  well-made  platform  pulpits — sometimes 
elaborate  structures  of  massive  stonework — they  do  credit  to  the 
simple  country  people  who  have  built  them.  But  it  cannot  be 
truthfully  said  that  the  majority  of  Madagascar  village  churches 
are  of  this  kind.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  them  are  rough 
structures  of  clay  walls  with  sun-dried  brick  gables  and  thatched 
roofs  ;  and  their  only  furniture  a  raised  platform  of  earth  or 
brick,  with  a  rough  table  serving  both  for  pulpit  and  for  the 
Communion,  a  clumsy  form  or  two  for  the  singers,  a  few  dirty 
mats  on  the  floor,  some  lesson-sheets  on  the  walls,  and  perhaps  a 
blackboard  for  every-day  school  use.  There  is  certainly  no  fear 
at  present  of  the  majority  of  our  congregations  being  led  astray 
by  sestheticism  in  religious  buildings  or  worship. 

But  frequently  there  are  at  the  same  time  some  attempts  at 
decoration,  and  these  are  often  very  incongruous  and  occasion- 
ally highly  comical  (though  doubtless  unintentionally  so).  In  a 
little  church  away  north,  and  otherwise  very  neatly  finished,  is  a 
band  of  ornament  round  the  walls  which  is  exactly  like  the 
figures  on  an  ace-of-clubs  card,  and  has  probably  been  copied 
from  this.    In  other  places  figures  of  officers   and  soldiers 


ODD  AND  CURIOUS  EXPERIENCES  OF  MALAGASY  LIFE.    35 1 

marching  and  even  fighting  are  prominent ;  in  others  are  seen 
sportsmen  firing  at  impossibly  big  birds  perched  on  trees  ;  in 
others  again  (as  in  the  former  Antsahamanitra  church  at 
Ambohimanga)  a  large  tree  is  conspicuous  behind  the  pulpit, 
bearing  tremendous  pumpkin-like  fruits.  (In  this  same  church, 
however,  there  were  also  some  very  tasteful  groups  of  flowers 
painted  on  the  keystones  of  the  window  arches.)  In  the  church 
at  Vohipeno  (Matitanana)  I  remember  that  the  front  of  the 
pulpit  was  decorated  in  the  following  way  :  part  of  the  space 
was  occupied  by  a  picture  of  a  European  ship  with  two  masts  ; 
the  other  part  had  a  church  with  a  tall  tower  and  spire  ;  over 
these  was  the  legend,  "  Hoy  izay  tompony  ity  trano  ity  :  Mata- 
hora "  ("  Says  the  lord  of  this  house :  Fear  ") ;  and  there  were 
also  four  birds  and  a  coloured  border.  Figures  of  clocks  are 
frequently  seen,  and  also  those  of  a  spear  and  shield,  whether 
with  any  reference  to  "  the  shield  of  faith  "  and  other  Christian 
armour,  I  cannot  say.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  no  example  of 
symbolism  or  sacred  monograms  or  emblems  has  ever  come 
under  my  notice,  although  passages  of  Scripture  are  now  not 
unfrequently  painted  on  the  walls  of  village  churches.  Trees 
with  fruit  and  flowers,  often  showing  some  taste,  are  seen  in 
many  places  ;  and  in  one  or  two  places  a  very  effective  decora- 
tion has  been  formed  by  painted  sprays  of  leaves  or  flowers 
scattered  over  the  wall,  giving  the  effect  of  a  simple  diaper  or 
wall-paper  pattern. 

During  a  tour  I  took  in  1874  round  the  Antsihanaka 
province  with  Dr.  Mullens  and  Mr.  Pillans,  we  were  much 
amused  by  the  variety  of  the  receptacles  used  at  the  doors 
of  the  village  churches  for  the  weekly  offerings  of  the  congrega- 
tions. In  one  district  old  sardine  tins  were  the  favourite  article 
employed ;  further  on  we  found  that  Morton's  jam  tins  were  most 
in  vogue  ;  while  in  yet  another  district  old  tin  flasks  formerly 
filled  with  gunpowder  were  in  greatest  request  for  the  purpose. 

In  certain  Malagasy  village  churches — not  very  many,  we 
should  hope — some  very  curious  additions   to   the  ordinary 


352  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

furniture  have  been  seen  by  occasional  visitors.  The  wish  of 
the  late  Queen  that  her  subjects  should  worship  the  true  God 
was  in  many  places  interpreted  by  petty  officials  as  giving 
them  authority  to  force  the  attendance  of  the  people,  and  to 
punish  them  if  they  were  negligent.  The  command,  "  Compel 
them  to  come  in,"  was,  in  fact,  often  very  literally  carried  out 
Travelling  down  to  the  Betsileo  province  on  one  occasion,  Dr. 
Davidson,  while  stopping  for  his  mid-day  meal  at  a  country 
chapel,  noticed  a  good-sized  stone  near  the  door,  the  object  of 
which  much  exercised  his  mind.  On  inquiring  the  use  of  this 
stone,  he  was  told  that  if  the  people  were  negligent  of  the 
"  means  of  grace  "  and  did  not  attend  service  regularly,  they 
were  seized  and  obliged  to  carry  the  stone  to  the  top  of  a 
neighbouring  hill  and  down  again,  to  punish  them  for  their 
sins  and  remind  them  to  be  more  diligent  in  future.  Another 
kind  of  penance  used  to  be  enforced  at  Tsiafahy :  people  who 
were  irregular  in  attendance  at  chapel  were  obliged  to  creep  on 
their  hands  and  knees  round  the  fdhitra  or  ox-fattening  pen  in 
the  village,  as  a  punishment  for  inattention  to  their  religious 
duties.  At  a  country  chapel  in  the  Friends'  District,  Mr.  H.  E. 
Clark  saw,  on  one  occasion,  a  deacon  sitting  at  the  door  with 
a  handful  of  small  pebbles.  When  this  official  noticed  any  one 
in  the  congregation  asleep,  or  inattentive,  or  irreverent,  he  threw 
a  pebble  at  the  offender  to  rouse  him  up,  or  as  a  gentle  reminder 
to  be  more  careful.^ 

Much  that  is  amusing  might  be  noted  with  regard  to  native 
preaching :  odd  illustrations,  strange  misapprehensions  and  mis- 
applications of  Scripture,  curious  answers  to  questions  about 
Biblical  subjects,  &c. ;  but  enough  has,  I  hope,  here  been  said  to 
justify  my  remark  at  the  commencement  of  this  paper,  that  the 
monotony  of  our  daily  routine  is  frequently  enlivened  by  curious 
and  comic  occurrences,  and  that,  together  with  the  more  serious 
duties  of  our  work,  there  is  often  "a  decided  element  of  the 
amusing,  the  odd,  and  the  absurd  "  in  our  life  in  Madagascar. 

^  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  all  true  missionaries  utterly  repudiate  and 
denounce  all  such  ways  of  promoting  Christianity. 


CHAPTER  XVI L 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR  IN  CON- 
NECTION WITH  THE  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE 
ISLAND,  WITH  NOTICES  OF  THE  EXTINCT  FORMS  OF 
ANIMAL  LIFE  OF  THE  COUNTRY. 

General  characteristics  of  mammalian  fauna — Remarkable  difference  to  that  of 
Africa — An  ancient  island — Wallace's  "  Island  Life  " — Oriental  and  Australian 
affinities — Vegetable  productions — Botanising  in  Madagascar — Three-fourths 
of  flora  endemic  in  the  island — Three  different  regions  described  by  Mr. 
Baron — Floral  beaut}- — Orchids — The  Eastern  Region — The  Central  Region 
— The  Western  Region — Extinct  forms  of  animal  life — Grandidier's  dis- 
coveries— Geology — Huge  lemuroid — Link  between  apes  and  lemurs — Small 
hippopotamus — The  ^pyornis — Crocodiles — Enormous  terrestrial  lizard — 
Primaival  Madagascar. 

Section  I. :  General  Characteristics  of  the  Malagasy 
Mammalian  Fauna. 

BEFORE  describing  the  Malagasy  animals,  something  must 
be  said  about  the  peculiarities  of  the  fauna  of  the  island 
taken  as  a  whole. 

A  large  extent  of  country  in  Madagascar  is  covered  with 
forest,  a  belt  of  which,  broad  in  som.e  places  and  narrow  in 
others,  is  believed  to  surround  the  island  in  an  almost  unbroken 
line  ;  while  there  is,  in  addition  to  this,  a  considerable  tract  of 
country,  less  densely  wooded,  occupying  much  of  the  western 
and  southern  plains.  Here,  then,  there  appears  to  be  a  con- 
genial habitat  for  a  vast  number  of  living  creatures — birds, 
reptiles,  and  arboreal  mammals — in  the  thousands  of  square 
miles  of  woods,  which  cover  not  only  a  great  portion  of  the 

24  353 


354  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

warmer  coast  region,  but  also  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  elevated 
interior  highlands. 

From  these  circumstances,  as  well  as  from  the  variety  of 
other  physical  conditions  prevailing  in  the  country — mountains 
and  open  downs,  cool  interior  highlands  and  sultry  tropical 
plains,  fertile  river  valleys  and  (in  the  south-west)  arid  deserts — 
it  might  be  supposed  that  Madagascar,  situated,  as  it  is,  almost 
entirely  within  the  tropics,  would  be  abundantly  filled  with 
animal  life.  But  it  is  not  so,  at  least,  not  nearly  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  one  would  expect,  and  a  stranger  crossing  the  forests  for 
the  first  time  is  always  struck  with  their  general  stillness  and 
the  apparent  scarcity  of  animal  life  along  the  route.  The  fauna 
of  the  country  does,  it  is  true,  include  some  most  interesting  and 
exceptional  forms  of  life,  but  it  is  almost  as  remarkable  for  what 
is  omitted  in  it  as  for  what  it  contains.  Not  only  so,  but  from 
the  position  of  the  island  with  regard  to  Africa — being  separated 
from  it  by  a  sea  only  230  miles  wide  at  its  narrowest  part,  a 
distance  further  reduced  by  a  bank  of  soundings  to  only  160 
miles — one  would  also  suppose  that  the  fauna  of  the  island 
would  largely  resemble  that  of  the  continent.  But  it  is  remark- 
ably different :  whole  families  of  the  larger  mammalia  are 
entirely  absent ;  there  are  no  representatives  of  the  .  larger 
felines,  no  lions,  leopards,  or  hyaenas ;  none  of  the  ungulate 
order,  except  a  single  species  of  river-hog,  sole  relative  here  of 
the  hippopotamus,!  no  rhinoceros  or  buffalo  ;  and  there  is  no 
zebra,  quagga,  or  giraffe,  or  any  of  the  numerous  families  of 
antelope  which  scour  the  African  plains.  There  is  no  elephant 
browsing  in  the  wooded  regions  of  Madagascar,  and,  stranger 
still,  there  are  no  apes  or  monkeys  living  in  its  trees.  The  few 
horses  and  asses  existing  in  the  island  are  of  recent  introduction 
by  Europeans  ;  even  the  humped  cattle,  which  exist  in  immense 
herds,  are  not  indigenous,  but  have  been  brought  at  a  somewhat 

^  There  was,  however,  formerly  a  small  species  of  Madagascar  hippopotamus, 
apparently  only  recently  extinct,  for  its  bones  are  found  in  a  sub-fossil  state, 
will  be  noticed  more  fully  further  on. 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR. 


355 


remote  period  from  Africa ;  and  the  hairy  fat-tailed  sheep  and 
the  goats,  as  well  as  the  swine  and  dogs  found  in  Madagascar, 
are  all  of  foreign  introduction. 

But  notwithstanding  all  that,  the  zoological  sub-region,  of 
which  Madagascar  is  the  largest  and  most  important  portion,  is 
pronounced  by  every  naturalist  who  has  studied  it  to  be  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  districts  on  the  globe,  bearing,  says  Mr. 
Alfred  R.  Wallace,  "  a  similar  relation  to  Africa  as  the  Antilles 
to  Tropical  America,  or  New  Zealand  to  Australia,  but  possess- 
ing a  much  richer  fauna  than  either  of  these,  and  in  some 
respects  a  more  remarkable  one  even  than  New  Zealand.^  The 
Madagascar  fauna  is  very  deficient  in  many  of  the  orders  and 
families  of  the  mammalia,  only  six  out  of  the  eleven  orders 
being  represented,^  but  some  of  these,  especially  the  Lemuroida 
among  the  Quadrumana,  the  Viverridae  among  the  Carnivora, 
and  the  Centetidae  among  the  Insectivora,  are  well  represented 
in  genera  and  species. 

No  less  than  forty  distinct  families  of  land  mammals  are 
represented  in  Africa,  only  eleven  of  which  occur  in  Mada- 
gascar, which  also  possesses  four  families  peculiar  to  itselfs 

^  The  whole  surface  of  the  globe  is  divided  b\'  Mr.  Wallace  into  six  zoological 
regions,"  in  each  of  which  broad  and  clearly  marked  distinctions  are  shown  to 
exist  in  the  animal  life  as  compared  with  that  of  the  other  great  divisions.  Each 
of  these  regions  is  again  divided  into  "  sub-regions,"  Madagascar  and  the  neigh- 
bouring islands  forming  the  "  Malagasy  Sub-region  "  of  the  "  Ethiopian  Region," 
the  latter  being  a  zoological  division  which  includes  Africa  south  of  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer,  together  with  its  islands,  excepting  the  Cape  De  Verde  group.  The 
following  diagram  shows  the  geographical  position  of  each  region,  and,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  their  relation  to  each  other  : — 

Nearctic    Pal^arctic 

Ethiopian  Oriental 
Neotropical  | 

Australian 

These  are,  Primates,  Cheiroptera,  Insectivora,  Carnivora,  Ungulata,  and 
Rodentia. 

3  Cheiromydae  (one  genus  and  one  species,  the  Aye-aye)  ;  Indrisidae  (three 
genera  and  ten  species  and  varieties)  ;  Lemuridas  (six  genera  and  twenty-eight 
species  and  varieties)  ;  and  Cr\'ptoproctidag  (one  genus  and  one  species, 
the  ¥bsd). 


356  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  all  the  genera  of  mammalia  as  yet 
known  to  inhabit  the  island,  together  with  the  number  of 
species  belonging  to  each,  these  latter,  including  well-marked 
varieties,  now  amounting  to  107  : — 


Primates.  Spedesanc 

varieties. 

Sub-order  Lemiiroida. 


Propithecus    8 

Avahis   i 

Indris    i 

Lemur   15 

Hapalemur   2 

Lepidolemur   4 

Phaner    i 

Mirza    i 

Cheirogaleus   5 

Cheiromys   i 

Cheiroptera. 

Pteropus   2 

Cynonycteris   i 

Phyllorhyna    i 

Vesperus   i 

Vesperugo    3 

Scotophilus   2 

Vespertilio   i 


Species  and 
Varieties. 


Miniopterus   2 

Emballonura    i 

Triaenops    2 

Taphozous    i 

Nyctinomus   6 

Rhinopoma    1 

Myzopoda   i 

Carxivora. 

Fossa   I 

Viverricula    i 

Cryptoprocta    i 

Felis    I 

Galidia    5 

Eupleres    i 

IXSECTIVORA. 

Sorex   2 

Mici-ogale   5 

Geogale   i 


Species  and 
Varieties. 


Oryzorictes    5 

Centetes    i 

Hemicentetes    3 

Echinops    i 

Ericulus    2 

RODEXTIA. 

Eliurus    I 

Hypogeomys    i 

Nesomys    3 

Brachj'tarsomys  ...  i 

Hallomys   i 

Schoenomys   2 

Pseudomyoxodon  i 

Brachyuromys    ...  2 

UXGULATA. 

Potamochoerus  ...  i 


Hippopotamus  [sub-fossU) 


We  have  here  a  total  of  46  genera  and  107  species  and 
varieties  of  mammals,  many  of  the  genera  being  peculiar  to 
Madagascar.  All  the  species  are  peculiar,  except,  perhaps, 
some  of  the  wandering  bats. 

The  assemblage  of  animals  above  noted  is  remarkable,  and 
seems  to  indicate  a  very  ancient  connection  with  the  southern 
portion  of  Africa  before  the  apes  and  all  its  present  ungulates 
and  felines  had  entered  it,  no  doubt  from  the  north.  The 
presence  of  nearly  a  hundred  species  of  mammals  is  a  certain 
proof  in  itself  that  the  island  has  once  formed  part  of,  or  has 
been  very  closely  connected  with,  a  continent  ;  and  yet  the 
character  of  these  animals  is  altogether  different  from  the 
assemblage  now  found  in  Africa  or  in  any  other  existing 
continent.  A  very  slight  acquaintance  with  the  present  fauna 
of  Africa  would  at  first  sight  prevent  us  from  thinking  that 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  357 

Madagascar  could  ever  have  been  united  with  it ;  and  yet,  as 
the  tigers,  the  bears,  the  tapirs,  the  deer,  and  the  numerous 
squirrels  of  Asia  are  equally  absent,  there  seems  no  possibility 
of  its  having  ever  been  united  with  that  continent.  Let  us 
then  see  to  what  groups  the  mammalia  of  Madagascar  belong, 
and  where  their  probable  allies  must  be  looked  for. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  tabular  list  already  given  that  the 
most  prominent  feature  of  the  Madagascar  mammalian  fauna 
is  the  lemurian,  the  ten  genera  and  thirty-nine  species  and 
varieties  which  are  here  represented  forming  about  four-fifths 
of  the  whole  mammalian  population  of  the  island.  The  lemurs, 
which  are  the  most  lowly  organised  of  the  Quadrumana,  and 
probably  also  the  most  ancient  animals  of  that  order,  are  still 
found  scattered  over  a  very  wide  area,  but  they  are  nowhere  so 
abundant  as  in  Madagascar,  having  doubtless  been  elsewhere 
largely  exterminated  in  the  struggle  for  existence  by  the  later 
developed  monkeys  and  apes.  Straggling  and  disconnected 
examples  are,  however,  found,  ranging  from  West  Africa,  where 
there  are  two  endemic  forms,  to  Southern  India,  Ceylon,  and 
Malaysia.  The  Lemuroida  of  these  regions  seem  to  hold  their 
own  by  their  nocturnal  and  arboreal  habits,  being  mostly  found 
in  dense  forests.  The  African  forms  of  lemur  seem  not  more 
closely  allied  to  those  of  Madagascar  than  are  the  Asiatic 
forms,  so  that  it  appears  probable  that  all  these  animals  are  but 
the  remains  of  a  once  widely-spread  and  much  more  numerous 
group.  This  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  lemurian  animals 
once  inhabited  North  America  and  Europe,  and  possibly  the 
whole  northern  hemisphere,  as  their  remains  have  been  found 
in  Eocene  deposits  of  the  Jura  and  of  South-west  France,  and 
in  the  Upper  Eocene  of  Paris. 

The  twenty-five  species  of  Bats  need  not  detain  us  at  this 
point,  as  they  are  all,  as  might  be  supposed  from  their  powers 
of  flight,  more  or  less  nearly  allied  to  forms  found  in  other  parts 
of  the  world. 

We  then  come  to  the  Carnivora,  which  are  represented  by  a 


358  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

peculiar  jaguar-like  animal,  the  Cryptoprocta,  which  forms  in 
itself  a  distinct  family  and  has  no  near  allies  in  any  other  part 
of  the  globe,  and  by  nine  civets,  belonging  to  genera  peculiar 
to  this  country.  "  Here  we  first  meet  with  some  decided 
indications  of  an  African  origin,  for  the  civet  family  is  more 
abundant  in  this  continent  than  in  Asia,  and  some  of  the 
Madagascar  genera  seem  to  be  decidedly  allied  to  African 
groups."  Although  now  almost  confined  to  the  Ethiopian  and 
Oriental  regions,  the  civets  were  abundant  in  Europe  during  the 
Miocene  period. 

Coming  to  the  next  order,  the  Insectivora,  we  find  them 
represented  in  Madagascar  by  two  families,  one  of  which — the 
shrews — is  found  over  all  the  continents,  but  the  other — the 
Centetidae — is  all  but  confined  to  this  island,  none  being  found 
anywhere  else  on  the  globe  except  one  genus  in  the  West 
Indies,  in  Cuba  and  Hayti,  "  thus,"  says  Mr.  Wallace,  "  adding 
still  further  to  our  embarrassment  in  seeking  for  the  original 
home  of  the  Madagascar  fauna."  This  group,  however,  is,  like  the 
Lemuroida,  of  high  geological  antiquity,  and  is  found  in  numerous 
peculiar  forms  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  but  in  no  equally 
limited  area  are  so  many  distinct  types  found  as  in  Madagascar. 

The  Madagascar  Rodents  consist  only  of  five  rats  and 
mice  of  endemic  genera,  one  of  which  is  said  to  be  allied  to  an 
American  genus  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  in  this  order  other 
species  will  still  be  discovered. 

As  regards  the  last  order,  the  Ungulata,  this  is  represented 
in  Madagascar  by  but  one  living  species,  a  river-hog  allied  to 
an  African  species,  and  by  an  extinct  form  of  hippopotamus. 
But,  from  the  semi-aquatic  habits  of  these  animals  and  their 
powers  of  swimming,  it  appears  probable  that  their  presence  in 
the  island  is  explained  by  a  former  more  close  connection  with 
the  neighbouring  continent.^ 

^  For  the  substance,  and  in  many  sentences  the  wording,  of  the  three 
preceding  pages,  I  am  indebted  to  those  valuable  works  of  Mr.  Wallace,  The 
Geographical  Disiributioti  of  Animals,  chap,  xi.,  vol.  i.,  and  Island  Life,  chap.  xix. 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  359 

For  a  full  discussion  of  the  difficult  problem  of  the  deri- 
vation of  this  very  particular  fauna,  I  would  refer  the  reader  to 
Mr.  Wallace's  interesting  work  Island  Life,  chap.  xix.  I  can 
only  here  indicate  in  a  very  brief  fashion  the  principal  points 
which  now  appear  pretty  well  established  from  a  consideration 
of  all  the  available  facts.  If  we  bear  in  mind  the  special  and 
isolated  character  of  many  of  the  Madagascar  birds,  as  well  as  the 
Asiatic  affinities  of  some  ;  the  peculiarities  of  the  mammalian 
fauna,  as  just  detailed  ;  the  Oriental  and  American  relation- 
ships of  many  of  the  reptiles  ;  and  the  Oriental,  Australian,  and 
even  South  American  affinities  of  some  of  the  insects  ;  and  if  to 
these  facts  we  add  the  geological  character  of  the  island,  and 
the  now  well-known  conditions  as  regards  the  depths  of  the 
surrounding  ocean,  the  following  deductions  may  be  fairly 
drawn  : — 

Madagascar  is  a  very  ancient  island  geologically  considered, 
and  many  of  the  animals  now  found  here  are  very  antique 
forms,  survivals  of  a  once  much  more  widely  extended  fauna, 
which  in  early  times  was  spread  over  the  continents,  but  has  in 
them  become  nearly  or  quite  extinct  through  the  introduction 
of  other  forms  of  animal  better  fitted  to  survive  in  the  struggle 
for  existence.  In  this  great  island,  however,  cut  off  from  the 
fiercer  competition  of  continental  Hfe,  many  of  these  earlier  types, 
e.g.y  the  Lemurs  and  the  Centetids,  have  held  their  own,  and  so 
Madagascar  has  become,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  kind  of  museum 
of  ancient  forms  of  life  to  be  seen  nowhere  else  on  the  globe. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Madagascar  had  anciently  a  much 
closer  connection  with  Africa  than  exists  at  present,  and  that 
from  that  continent  most  of  its  present  fauna  was  derived, 
before,  however.  Southern  Africa  had  received  from  the  Euro- 
Asiatic  continent  most  of  its  present  characteristic  animals. 
At  the  time  when  Madagascar  was  thus  more  closely  connected 
with  the  continent,  Southern  Africa  was  probably  a  large  conti- 
nental island,  like  Australia,  separated  from  its  northern  portion 
by  a  shallow  sea,  now  represented  by  the  Sahara  and  the 


360  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Arabian  deserts.  About  the  same  time  also  it  is  probable  that 
numerous  groups  of  islands,  now  represented  only  by  still  slowly 
sinking  banks  and  atolls  in  the  Northern  Indian  Ocean,  brought 
Madagascar  into  much  closer  connection  with  South-eastern 
Asia,  and  so  some  of  the  Oriental  and  Australian  affinities  of 
its  fauna  are  perhaps  accounted  for.  And  as  for  the  likeness  of 
some  of  its  forms  of  life  {e.g.,  the  Centetidse  among  Insectivora, 
the  Urania  among  butterflies,  and  some  of  the  serpents  and 
tortoises  among  reptiles)  to  the  living  creatures  of  still  more 
distant  countries,  these  are  no  doubt  only  remnants  of  a 
fauna  once  spread  over  all  the  intervening  regions,  but  now 
found  only  in  such  widely  separated  islands  as  Cuba  and 
Madagascar. 

It  will  be  evident,  therefore,  that  although  the  mammalian 
fauna  of  Madagascar  consists,  except  in  the  case  of  some  of  the 
lemurs,  chiefly  of  small  and  inconspicuous  animals,  many  of 
these  creatures  are  of  exceptional  interest  to  the  zoologist,  and 
throw  no  small  light  upon  earlier  conditions  of  life  upon  the 
earth. 

Having  thus  sketched  the  leading  characteristics  of  the 
Madagascar  Fauna,  I  proceed  to  give  a  brief  outline  of  the 
Flora  of  the  island,  for  the  main  facts  of  which  I  am  indebted 
to  a  paper  of  my  friend,  the  Rev.  R.  Baron,  F.L.S.,  contri- 
buted in  November,  1888,  to  the  Journal  of  the  Linnean  Society 
— Botany.'^ 

Section  II. :  The  Flora  of  Madagascar. 

The  vegetable  productions  of  the  island  are  now  tolerably 
well  known  to  science,  since  the  country  has  been  explored  by 
European  botanists  in  many  different  directions.  Its  highest 
mountains  have  been  ascended,  its  lakes  and  marshes  crossed,  and 
its  encircling  forests  have  been  penetrated  in  a  number  of  places  ; 
and  large  collections  of  plants  have  been  made  at  various  times, 

^  The  Flora  of  Madagascar,  with  map  showing  Botanical  "  Regions." 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  36 1 

which  have  been  described  in  the  scientific  journals  of  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  Holland.  By  far  the  largest  number  of 
these  have  been  collected  and  sent  to  England  by  Mr.  Baron, 
who  is  at  present  the  chief  authority  on  the  flora  of  Mada- 
gascar. 

In  1889  the  number  of  plants  from  Madagascar  which  had 
been  named  and  described  was  about  4,100,  and  these  have 
since  been  increased  to  probably  over  4,300.  The  south-western 
portion  of  Madagascar,  and  the  lowlands  of  its  southern  part 
generally,  are  at  present  the  least  known  as  regards  the  botany, 
but  every  year  sees  some  addition  made  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  island,  and  the  blanks  on  the  map  are  being  rapidly 
filled  up. 

Mr.  Baron  graphically  describes  his  experiences  in  botanical 
collecting : — 

"  Botanising  in  Madagascar,  as  those  who  have  travelled  in 
wild  and  uncivilised  regions  in  other  parts  of  the  world  will 
easily  believe,  is  a  totally  different  experience  from  botanising 
in  England.  Your  collecting  materials  are  carried  by  a  native, 
who  may  be  honest  or  not,  in  which  latter  case  the  drying  paper 
will  begin  gradually  and  mysteriously  to  disappear,  and  the 
leather  straps  with  which  the  presses  are  tightened  will,  one  by 
one,  be  quietly  appropriated.  For  a  Malagasy  bearer  has  a 
special  weakness  for  leather  straps,  they  being  largely  used  for 
belts,  so  that  both  for  the  sake  of  your  own  comfort  and  the 
honesty  of  the  men,  the  sooner  you  dispense  with  them  the 
better.  As  for  the  dried  plants  themselves,  they  are  secure 
from  all  pilfering ;  for  of  what  possible  use  or  value  they  can 
be,  it  puzzles  the  natives  to  conceive.  You  might  leave  your 
collection  in  a  village  for  a  whole  month,  and  you  would  find  on 
your  return  that  it  was  still  intact.  If,  after  the  day's  journey, 
you  sit  down  in  a  hut  to  change  the  sheets  of  paper  containing 
the  specimens,  the  villagers  will  be  sure  to  come  in,  and,  stand- 
ing round  in  a  circle,  gaze  at  you  in  mute  astonishment,  turning 
over  the  plants  so  well  known  to  them.    After  a  few  minutes' 


362  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

silent  gaze,  there  will  perhaps  be  a  sudden  outburst  of  amused 
laughter,  or  it  may  be  a  little  whispering,  which,  if  it  were 
audible,  would  be  something  to  this  effect :  '  Whatever  in  the 
world  is  the  man  doing  ?  '  or,  '  What  strange  creatures  the  white 
men  are  ! '  Some  of  the  people  doubtless  think  that  you  are  a 
kind  of  sorcerer.  For  these  dried  plants,  whatever  can  you  do 
with  them  ?  you  cannot  eat  them  ;  you  cannot  make  them  into 
broth  ;  you  cannot  plant  them,  for  they  are  dead  ;  you  cannot 
form  them  into  bouquets  or  wreaths,  for  they  are  brown  and 
withered.  Is  it  surprising,  then,  if  some  of  the  natives  think 
that  you  are  dabbling  in  the  black  art,  and  that  your  plants,  in 
the  form  of  some  strange  and  mysterious  decoction,  are  to 
supply,  it  may  be,  a  potent  rain-medicine,  or  a  love-philter,  or  a 
disease-preventing  physic  ?  For  among  the  natives  themselves 
there  are  many  herbal  quacks,  who,  for  a  consideration,  are  able 
not  only  to  prescribe  for  the  cure,  and  even  prevention,  of 
disease,  but  also  to  furnish  charms  against  fire  or  tempest,  locusts 
or  lightning,  leprosy  or  lunacy,  ghosts,  crocodiles,  or  witches. 
The  explanation  which  I  have  most  frequently  heard  given, 
however,  by  the  more  intelligent  of  the  natives  as  to  the  use 
of  the  dried  plants,  is  that  the  leaves  are  intended  to  be 
employed  for  patterns  in  weaving. 

"  It  is  not,  then,  the  natives  that  you  have  to  fear  in  regard 
to  your  collections  of  plants,  it  is  the  weather — it  is  those  heavy 
showers  that,  unless  protected  with  extreme  care  by  waterproof 
coverings,  succeed  in  soaking  your  specimens  and  your  drying 
paper,  so  that  you  have  occasionally  to  spend  half  the  night  in 
some  dirty  hovel  in  doing  what  you  can,  by  the  aid  of  a  large 
fire,  to  save  your  collection  from  destruction." 

A  large  extent  of  country  in  Madagascar  is  covered  with 
primeval  forest.  These  woods  are  most  extensive  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  island,  where  they  clothe  the  hills  and  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  edge  of  the  upper  table-land,  where  the  principal 
water-parting  of  the  country,  running  north  and  south,  is  found. 
It  is  believed  that  the  whole  island  is  encircled  by  a  belt  of 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  363 

forest,  but  this  statement  still  requires  confirmation,  although 
there  is  no  doubt  that  there  are  extensive  forests  also  on  the 
western  side.  The  eastern  forest  attains  its  greatest  breadth  in 
the  north-east  of  Madagascar,  a  little  north  of  the  Bay  of 
Antongil,  where  it  is  from  40  to  60  miles  broad.  Further  south, 
however,  it  is  much  narrower,  probably  not  averaging  more 
than  25  miles  in  breadth.  It  has  been  calculated  that  in  the 
whole  island  there  is  an  area  of  30,000  miles  of  forest-covered 
country,  or  about  one-eighth  part  of  the  total  area.  Besides 
dense  forests,  there  is  a  large  extent  of  country  on  the  coast 
plains  covered  with  scattered  patches  of  wood  and  brush,  so  it 
will  be  easily  seen  how  large  a  field  there  is  in  Madagascar  for 
botanical  research. 

This  large  extent  of  wooded  country  is,  however,  being 
diminished  every  year  by  the  wholesale  destruction  of  the 
forest  in  burning  it  for  rice-planting,  and  it  is  grievous  to  see 
how  recklessly  it  is  cut  down  and  destroyed  for  this  and  other 
more  trivial  reasons.  The  large  concessions  of  forest  land  to 
European  companies  for  timber-cutting  and  plantations  also 
tend  in  the  same  direction,  and  unless  some  plan  of  forest 
conservation  is  soon  effected,  the  beautiful  woods,  with  most  of 
their  flora  and  fauna,  will  eventually  disappear. 

Mr.  Baron  believes  that  the  great  bulk  of  the  Madagascar 
plants  have  been  already  gathered,  and  so  there  are  now 
sufficient  data  to  enable  a  few  general  conclusions  to  be  drawn 
as  to  the  character  and  distribution  of  the  flora.  I  will  again 
quote  from  his  paper  to  give  these  conclusions  : — 

"  The  following  figures  will  show  at  a  glance  the  number 
of  Natural  Orders  and  genera  of  flowering  plants  represented 
in  Madagascar  as  compared  with  those  known  throughout  the 
world,  according  to  Bentham  and  Hooker's  Genera  Plantar uin\ — 

Total  known  in  the  World  :  Orders,  200  ;  Genera,  7,569. 
„         „        Madagascar :     „      144 ;       „  970. 


The  number  of  genera  here  given  comprises  those  only  that 


3^4 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


are  indigenous  to  the  island.  If  we  include  the  numerous 
plants  that  have  at  one  time  or  other  been  introduced,  the  total 
number  of  the  genera  would  be  probably  raised  to  about  1,050. 

"Of  the  4,100  indigenous  plants  at  present  known  in 
Madagascar,  about  3,000  (or  three-fourths  of  the  flora),  are^ 
remarkable  to  say,  endemic.  Even  of  the  Gramineae  and 
Cyperacese  about  two-fifths  of  the  plants  in  each  order  are 
peculiar  to  the  island.  There  is  but  one  natural  order  confined 
to  Madagascar,  the  Chlaenaceae,  with  twenty-four  species,  which, 
however.  Dr.  Baillon  places  under  Ternstroemiaceae.  Of  ferns 
more  than  a  third  are  endemic,  and  of  orchids  as  much  as  five- 
sixths,  facts  which  in  themselves  are  sufficient  to  give  a  very 
marked  individuality  to  the  character  of  the  flora. 

"  Of  the  4,100  known  plants,  there  are  : — 

Dicotyledons   3,492 

Monocotyledons    248 

Acotyledons  '   360 

4,100 

"  The  following  list  shows  the  number  of  species  in  the 
Orders  most  largely  represented,  and  their  percentage  of  the 
total  flora  {i.e.,  of  the  4,100  plants  mentioned  above)  : — 

No.        Per  cent. 

Leguminosae    346  8*4 

Filices   318  7-8 

Compositaj   281  6*9 

Euphorbiacec't;    228  5'6 

Orchideae    170  4*1 

Cyperaceai   160  3-9 

Rubiace^e    147  3'6 

Acanthaceaj    131  3'2 

Graminere    130  3*2 

"  The  Palms  and  Asclepiads  are  as  yet  imperfectly  known. 
Of  the  former  only  eighteen  are  described,  although  the  island 

^  "This  includes  only  the  Filices,  Equisetaceie,  Lycopodiaceaj,  and  Selagi- 
nellaceae.  The  remaining  Acotyledonous  Orders  are  as  yet  very  imperfectly 
known.    Of  Mosses  about  250  have  been  described,  and  of  Rhizophorene  5." 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  365 

undoubtedly  possesses  a  large  number.  Many  Asclepiadaceous 
plants  have  been  collected,  but  the  majority  of  them  are  still 
lying  unnamed  in  various  European  herbaria.  The  number  of 
endemic  genera  now  reaches  about  148."^ 

Many  interesting  particulars  are  given  by  Mr.  Baron  as  to 
these  endemic  genera,  but  these  must  be  omitted  in  this  place, 
with  one  exception.  Leptoloena  pauciflora^  belonging  to  the  en- 
demic order  Chlaenaceae,  is,  says  Mr.  Baron,  "  a  hard-wooded  tree, 
from  the  trunk  and  branches  of  which,  at  a  certain  season  of  the 
year,  there  is  a  ceaseless  dropping  of  water,  sufficient  indeed  to 
keep  the  ground  quite  damp.  This  is  caused  by  a  number  of 
hemipterous  insects  crowding  together  in  a  slimy  liquid.  May 
this  afford  an  explanation  of  the  similar  well-known  phenome- 
non exhibited  by  the  Tainai-caspi,  or  Rain-tree,  of  the  Eastern 
Peruvian  Andes  ?  " 

As  regards  the  distribution  of  the  vegetable  life  of  Mada- 
gascar, Mr.  Baron  sees  sufficient  reason  to  divide  the  island 
into  three  Regions,  and  he  gives  a  number  of  figures  and  com- 
parisons to  justify  his  conclusions.  Roughly  speaking,  these 
three  Regions,  which  he  calls  Eastern,  Central,  and  Western 
respectively,  correspond  closely  to  the  (i)  eastern  side  of  the 
island,  east  of  the  crest  of  the  mountain  range  which  forms  the 
main  water-parting  of  the  country  ;  (2)  the  central  portion, 
including  the  upper  table-land,  consisting  chiefly  of  gneiss  and 
other  crystalline  rocks  ;  and  (3)  the  western  side  of  the  island 
including  the  extensive  coast  plains,  comparatively  level,  on  the 
west  and  south-west. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  plants  common  to  the  three  Regions 
are  widely-spread  tropical  species,  while  few  plants  reach  right 

*  "  A  few  other  endemic  genera  have  been  described  since  this  paper  was 
written,  and  require  to  be  added  to  the  Hst  given  above.  They  are  :  Santalina  (1) 
under  Rubiaceae,  Mcnabca  (i)  in  Asclepiadeae,  Pcricstcs  (i)  and  Camarotca  (i)  in 
Acanthaceas,  and  LcucosaJpa  (i)  in  Scrophulariaceas.  It  may  also  be  added  that 
since  the  publication  of  the  above  about  160  new  plants  (including  31  species  of 
Crotoii)  have  been  described  from  Madagascar,  bringing  the  total  number  of 
species  known  in  the  island  (excluding  the  mosses  and  some  other  of  the  lower 
cryptogams)  up  to  4,260." 


366  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

over  the  island  from  east  to  west.  Among  these  few  is  the  Rofia 
palm  {Raphia  ruffid)  ;  while  a  fern  [Gleichenia  dichotona)  is  per- 
haps the  commonest  and  most  widely-spread  specimen  in  the 
whole  island. 

An  examination  of  the  list  of  plants  found  in  the  three 
Regions  shows  a  wide  difference  between  the  floras  of  the 
Central  Region  and  of  the  two  others  to  the  east  and  west ;  and 
this  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  when  it  is  remembered  that  the 
Central  Region  has  a  great  elevation  above  the  sea  (from  3,000 
to  nearly  9,000  feet).  But  it  is  not  so  easy  to  account  for  the 
great  difference  between  the  floras  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Regions,  seeing  that  they  have  the  same  position,  as  regards 
latitude,  and  do  not  differ  much  in  height  above  the  sea 
(although  the  western  side  of  the  island  is  decidedly  hotter). 
Mr.  Baron  gives  a  very  simple  reason  for  this,  pointing  out  that 
the  elevated  central  region  of  the  island,  running  north  and 
south,  is  no  doubt  of  very  great  antiquity,  reaching  possibly 
from  the  Palaeozoic  era,  and  has  therefore  always  formed  a 
barrier  (except  at  the  south)  between  the  floras  of  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Regions.  "  The  floras  therefore,  even  if  they  were 
formerly  similar,  which  is  doubtful,  have  had  abundance  of  time 
to  become  differentiated  in  character  ;  and  if  they  were  originally 
different,  they  have  been  kept,  by  the  existence  of  the  mountain 
barrier,  distinct  to  the  present  day." 

As  regards  floral  beauty  in  Madagascar,  all  who  have 
travelled  much  in  the  island  will  agree  with  the  statements 
of  Dr.  A.  R.  Wallace  in  his  Malay  Archipelago  and  Tropical 
Nature,  that,  contrary  to  the  common  opinion,  tropical  countries 
and  tropical  forests  are  not  rich  in  flowers,  although  they  are 
unrivalled  for  luxuriance  of  foliage.  Madagascar  is  no  excep- 
tion to  this  rule,  for  it  possesses  comparatively  few  plants  having 
beautiful  flowers.  There  is  nothing  to  compare  with  an  English 
meadow,  with  its  clover  and  its  buttercups  and  daisies,  or  with  a 
field  of  poppies,  or  with  the  effects  produced  by  gorse  and  broom 
and  heather.    Nor  are  there  many  flowering  trees  in  the  forests, 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  367 

and  any  one  expecting  to  see  great  numbers  of  beautiful  flowers 
there  will  be  disappointed.  There  are,  it  is  true,  a  considerable 
number  of  handsome  flowers,  both  on  the  open  downs  and  in  the 
woods,  but  they  do  not  occur,  with  some  few  exceptions,  in  large 
masses,  so  as  to  strike  the  eye,  or  to  produce  a  distinct  effect  in  the 
landscape.^  One  of  the  most  conspicuous  flowers  in  the  upper 
forest  in  the  month  of  November  is  that  of  a  liana  {Strongylodon 
Cravenice),  which  has  a  stem  about  as  thick  as  a  one-inch  rope, 
and  spikes  of  creamy-yellow  flowers  set  pretty  closely  on  the 
main  stem.  These  spikes  are  from  10  to  16  inches  in  length, 
each  containing  from  40  to  60  large  flowers  growing-  closely 
together,  so  that  they  are  xQry  conspicuous  in  the  forest,  forming 
immense  festoons  of  flowers,  mounting  to  the  tops  of  the  highest 
trees,  crossing  from  one  tree  to  another,  and  shining  almost 
golden  in  colour  in  the  brilliant  sunshine. 

The  Orchids  are  a  prominent  feature  in  the  woods  near  the 
east  coast,  especially  several  species  of  Angrcecurn  ;  of  these  A. 
superbum  is  the  most  plentiful,  while  A.  sesquipedale,  with  its 
long  spur  and  large  pure  white  flowers,  is  also  very  conspicuous. 
In  the  interior  of  the  island  there  are  several  striking  ground 
orchids  ;  one  yellow,  another  brilliant  scarlet,  and  another  blue 
in  colour.  Among  trees  and  shrubs  which  have  the  most  hand- 
some flowers  are  species  of  Rkodolcena,  Impatiens,  Ixora^  Stepha- 
notis,  Poinciana^  Astrapcea,  Iponioea,  Kigelia,  Covibretuvi,  and 
others. 

A  few  particulars  may  be  added  as  to  the  special  characteris- 
tics of  each  of  the  three  botanical  Regions. 

The  Eastern  Region. — This  is  a  comparatively  narrow  strip 
of  country  lying  between  the  sea  and  the  central  highland,  of 
the  interior.  It  averages  about  60  to  70  miles  in  breadth,  and  is 
about  900  miles  long  from  north  to  south.  It  includes  a  littoral 
belt  of  grassy  and  wooded  plains,  with  a  series  of  lagoons  stretch- 
ing in  an  almost  continuous  line  for  300  to  400  miles  ;  then  a 
tract  of  country  with  a  wild  confusion  of  rounded  hills  ;  and 
'  See,  however,  Chapter  IV.,  p.  72. 


368  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

thirdly,  a  series  of  two  or  three  mountain  ranges,  running  almost 
throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  island,  and  rising  in  the 
western  range  to  a  height  of  about  4,500  feet  above  the  sea. 
Facing  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  meeting  the  vapour-laden  south- 
east winds,  which  blow  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  this 
eastern  side  of  Madagascar  is  naturally  the  moistest  portion  of 
the  island,  and  its  vegetation  is  accordingly  most  abundant.  A 
large  proportion  of  its  surface  is  covered  with  dense  forest,  and 
there  are  innumerable  patches  of  wood  and  bush  where  there  is 
no  continuous  forest. 

The  narrow  littoral  belt,  with  its  attractive  park-like  scenery, 
has  been  made  most  familiar  to  English  readers  by  descriptions 
of  it  in  many  books  relating  to  Madagascar ;  since  that  portion 
of  it  which  extends  between  Tamatave  and  Andovoranto  is 
traversed  by  almost  all  travellers  to  the  capital.  Its  soft  green 
turf,  its  clumps  of  trees  and  shrubs,  and  its  lake  scenery, 
make  this  portion  of  the  journey  a  very  pleasant  experience. 
Among  the  most  striking  features  of  the  vegetation  here  are  the 
tall  fir-like  Casuarina,  or  beef-wood  tree,  which  grows  in  long 
lines  mile  after  mile,  near  the  shore  ;  several  species  of  Pandanus, 
or  screw-pine ;  the  Indian  almond  ( Tei'niinalia  Catappd)  ;  the 
celebrated  Tangena  shrub  {Tanghinia  veneniferd),  formerly  used 
as  an  ordeal  ;  a  species  of  fern-palm  {Cycas  Thouarsii),  from 
which  a  kind  of  sago  is  obtained  ;  occasional  plantations  of 
cocoa-nut  palm,  which,  however,  is  not  indigenous  to  the  island  ; 
and  many  others,  including  some  of  the  most  beautiful  flowering 
trees  already  mentioned.  The  Orchids  have  been  referred  to 
above  ;  and  besides  these,  among  other  noteworthy  plants,  is  a 
species  of  pitcher-plant  {Nepenthes)^  with  pitchers  4  or  5  inches 
long,  and  the  curious  and  beautiful  lace-leaf  plant  {Ouvirandra 
fenestralis),  which  is,  however,  found  also  in  streams  in  the 
Central  Region.  Bordering  the  riversides  and  in  marshes,  a 
gigantic  Arum  {Vihd)  from  12  to  15  feet  in  height,  with  a  large 
white  spathe  more  than  a  foot  in  length,  grows  by  thousands, 
and  is  sure  to  attract  attention. 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  369 

As  one  travels  higher  up  the  country,  other  trees  and  shrubs 
become  prominent ;  among  these  is  a  most  elegant  species  of 
bamboo,  which,  with  its  curving  stems  and  light-green  clusters 
of  leaves,  gives  quite  a  Character  to  the  scenery  ;  the  celebrated 
Traveller's-tree  (already  described  in  Chapter  I.) ;  the  Carda- 
mom ;  the  Rofia  palm,  with  its  enormously  long  leaves  and 
feathery  fronds  ;  and  many  others.  * 

With  regard  to  the  upper  and  forest-covered  portion  of  the 
Eastern  Region,  Mr.  Baron  says  that  it  is  "  remarkable  for  its 
great  variety  of  plant  forms,  there  being  no  single  species,  genus, 
or  order  of  plants  predominant  over  the  rest,  or  which  influences 
to  any  great  degree  the  general  physiognomy  of  the  vegetation." 
For  full  particulars  as  to  the  most  characteristic  trees  and  plants 
the  reader  must  be  referred  to  Mr.  Baron's  paper  ;  suffice  it  to 
say  here  that  there  are  many  kinds  producing  valuable  and 
beautiful  timber,  some  of  which  are  becoming  important  com- 
mercially ;  others  yield  many  useful  products,  as  indiarubber, 
bark  for  dyes,  gamboge,  pepper,  arrowroot,  &c.  As  in  most 
tropical  forests,  the  numerous  kinds  of  liana,  from  some  not 
thicker  than  a  stout  thread  to  others  as  large  as  a  ship's  cable 
bind  the  trees  together  in  an  almost  impenetrable  tangle  of 
cordage,  through  which  it  is  most  difficult  to  force  a  path. 

The  Central  Region. — As  already  stated,  this  second 
botanical  region  occupies  the  elevated  table-land  of  the  interior 
of  Madagascar.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  greater  part  of  this 
region  consists  of  bare,  dreary,  and  desolate  moorlands,  with 
little  verdure,  except  in  the  hollows  between  the  hills,  and  in 
those  valleys  and  plains,  mostly  the  beds  of  ancient  lakes  now 
dried  up,  where  rice  is  cultivated  by  the  people.  Trees  and 
shrubs  are  few,  except  where  a  few  patches  of  forest  still  remain ; 
and  the  moorlands  and  hills  are  covered  with  coarse,  wiry, 
grey-brown  grass.  But  for  the  usual  bright  skies  and  clear 
atmosphere,  this  part  of  Madagascar  would  be  much  more 
dreary  and  uninteresting  than  it  really  is.  (For  many  aspects 
of  this^part  of  the  country,  see  Chapter  IV.)    One  peculiarity 

25 


370  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

of  this  region  is  that  its  vegetation  consists  much  more  largely 
of  herbs  and  small  wiry  plants  than  of  trees  and  shrubs ;  in  fact, 
about  three-fourths  of  the  plants  belong  to  the  former  class. 
Another  peculiarity  of  the  flora  here  is,  as  might  be  expected, 
its  more  temperate  character  than  that  of  either  of  the  other 
two  regions.  Palms  and  other  tropical  forms  are  rare,  while, 
on  the  other  hand.  Heaths,  Gentians,  and  plants  of  the  orders 
Umbelliferae,  Ranunculaceae,  and  Crassulaceae  are  plentiful, 
and  such  mountain  forms  as  the  Violet,  the  Geranium,  and  the 
Sundew,  as  well  as  the  common  bracken,  the  royal  fern,  and  the 
male  fern  are  found.  Perhaps  the  most  prominent  trees  in  the 
Central  Region  are  several  species  of  Ficus,  especially  the 
Ambntana,  with  large  glossy  leaves,  and  the  Aviavy,  which  are 
frequently  seen  in  the  old  towns  and  villages  of  the  interior 
provinces,  and  also  the  Nonbka,  the  Vodi'a,  and  the  Addbo. 
Mr.  Baron  gives  a  list  of  sixty-three  plants,  only  found  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Ankaratra  mass  of  mountains,  all  of  which  are 
endemic  in  Madagascar. 

The  Western  Region. — This  part  of  the  island  is  much  less 
known  than  those  included  in  the  other  two  regions.  With  the 
exception  of  two  or  three  mountain  ranges,  which  appear  to  run 
in  a  very  straight  course  for  several  hundred  miles,  this  region 
largely  consists  of  extensive  level  or  slightly  undulating  plains, 
covered  with  coarse  grass  and  patches  of  forest,  beside  the 
encircling  belt  of  wood  not  many  miles  from  the  shore  line. 
The  heat  is  much  greater  on  the  western  side  of  the  island  than 
on  the  eastern  side,  while  the  rainfall  is  much  less,  especially  in 
the  south-west,  where  a  small  extent  of  country  is  almost  a 
desert  from  the  scanty  amount  of  rain  it  receives.  The  vege- 
tation here,  therefore,  is  much  less  plentiful  and  luxuriant  than 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  island,  and  trees  and  shrubs  are  more 
restricted  to  the  banks  of  rivers  and  streams. 

The  most  common  trees  and  shrubs  here  are  species  of 
FicuSy  Hibiscus,  Eugenia,  and  Weinmannia,  and  the  Tamarind, 
which  grows  to  a  large  size,  as  does  also  the  Mango,  while  the 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  37 1 

Rofia  palm  is  found  in  large  numbers.  Three  or  four  species 
of  fan-palm  {^HyphcBnc  and  Bisinarckid)  give  a  very  distinct 
character  to  the  scenery  in  many  parts  of  the  district.  In  the 
journal  of  a  canoe  voyage  I  made  down  the  Betsiboka  river 
some  years  ago,  I  find  the  following  reference  to  these  trees  : 
"  Here  the  lovely  fan-palms  became  very  numerous.  At  times 
we  passed  close  to  the  banks,  a  tangled  mass  of  bararata  (a 
graceful  bamboo-like  grass)  bending  down  into  the  river,  and 
the  tall  columns  of  the  palms  standing  up  from  the  very  edge 
of  the  water,  with  their  graceful  crowns  of  green  fans  sharply 
defined  against  the  blue  of  the  sky.  Surely  of  all  the  thousands 
of  beautiful  things  in  this  beautiful  world,  palms  are  among  the 
most  lovely,  and  the  fan-palm  not  the  least  in  this  glorious 
family  of  trees.  It  was  a  perpetual  delight  to  the  eyes  to  watch 
them  as  we  swept  rapidly  by  the  banks  with  the  strong  current, 
as  one  after  another  they  passed  us  by  as  in  a  panorama." 

Another  very  noticeable  tree  is  plentiful  on  the  west  coast, 
viz.,  the  Baobab,  which  is  remarkable  for  its  enormous  bulk  of 
trunk  and  smooth  light-brown  bark.  Many  species  of  Diospyros 
are  found  in  the  forests,  from  some  of  which  ebony  is  obtained. 
Along  the  west  coast,  and  especially  on  the  shores  of  the 
innumerable  bays  and  inlets  of  the  north-west,  the  Mangrove  is 
found  in  immense  numbers ;  while  the  most  abundantly  repre- 
sented Order  in  the  Western  Region  is  the  Leguminosae,  and 
next  to  that  the  Euphorbiaceae. 

A  few  words  may  be  added  as  to  the  Relationship  of  the 
Madagascar  Flora.  Mr.  J.  G.  Baker,  of  Kew,  has  shown  that 
there  is  a  close  affinity  between  it  and  that  of  tropical  Africa ; 
this  is  probably  more  especially  the  case  as  regards  the  flora 
of  the  Western  Region.  And  strange  to  say,  there  is  also  a 
slight  amount  of  affinity  between  the  flora  of  Madagascar  and 
that  of  America.  Further,  an  examination  of  this  flora  as  a 
whole  confirms  what  is  shown  also  by  the  geology  and  the 
fauna  of  the  island,  namely,  its  great  antiquity  and  its  long 
isolation.     "  About  three-fourths  of  the  species  and  a  sixth 


372  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

of  its  genera  of  plants  are  endemic  ;  and  it  seems  probable  that 
Madagascar  was  joined  to  the  African  continent  during  some 
part  or  parts  or  the  whole  of  the  Miocene  (including  Oligocene) 
and  early  Pliocene  periods,"  but  was  cut  off  from  the  mainland 
at  least  not  subsequent  to  the  later  Pliocene  period. 

A  large  number  of  plants,  trees,  and  shrubs  have  been 
introduced  into  Madagascar,  including  fruits,  cereals,  and  vege- 
tables ;  but  although  many  of  them  have  established  themselves 
in  the  island  and  become  naturalised,  they  can  scarcely  be 
incorporated  in  the  native  flora. 

Section  III.:  Extinct  Forms  of  Animal  Life  in 
Madagascar. 

Geology  and  Palaeontology  are  very  modern  sciences  in 
Madagascar,  for  except  slight  and  fragmentary  notices  of  fossils 
in  1 82 1,  1854,  and  1855,  and  the  first  discovery  of  the  eggs  of 
^pyornis  in  185 1,  hardly  anything  was  known  of  the  geology 
of  the  island  or  of  its  ancient  forms  of  life  until  within  the  last 
thirty  years.  The  travels  and  researches  of  M.  Alfred  Grandidier, 
however,  from  1865  to  1870,  gave  the  first  accurate  information 
as  to  the  physical  geography  of  the  country,  together  with 
particulars  as  to  the  geology  of  various  parts  of  it,  and  greatly 
added  also  to  our  knowledge  of  the  fauna.  And  during  the  past 
twenty  years  a  large  number  of  facts  have  been  obtained  by 
various  travellers,  and  collections  of  rock  specimens  and  fossils 
have  been  made. 

Although  a  very  great  deal  yet  remains  to  be  done  before  it 
can  be  said  that  we  have  a  fairly  complete  elementary  acquaint- 
ance with  Madagascar  geology,  especially  in  the  central-western, 
south-western,  and  southern  portions  of  the  island,  certain 
general  conclusions  appear  pretty  fairly  established,  and  may 
be  very  briefly  described.  The  central  portion  of  the  island 
(more,  however,  to  the  east  of  the  true  centre)  consists  of  land 
elevated  from  3,000  feet  to  between  8,000  and  9,000  feet  above 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  373 

the  sea,  and  extending  for  about  650  miles  north  and  south,  and 
about  180  miles  at  its  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west.  This 
portion  of  the  island  is  very  mountainous,  in  fact,  there  is  here 
hardly  any  level  land  except  in  the  valleys  of  the  rivers,  and  in 
the  dried-up  beds  of  ancient  lakes.  The  rocks  of  this  interior 
region,  as  well  as  of  the  narrow  belt  of  coast  plains  and  hilly 
country  between  it  and  the  sea  to  the  east,  consist  of  gneiss 
and  other  crystalline  rocks,  gneiss  very  largely  predominating. 
Besides  these  ancient  rocks  there  are  also  more  modern  ones, 
of  various  ages  and  of  volcanic  origin.  The  highest  points  in 
the  island  are  the  summits  of  the  mass  of  Ankaratra,  which  is 
"the  wreck  of  a  huge  but  ancient  subaerial  volcano."  Beside 
these  and  other  ancient  signs  of  subterranean  action,  there  are 
many  scores  of  volcanic  cones,  probably  of  much  more  recent 
origin,  some  of  them  possibly  in  activity  during  the  earliest 
human  occupation  of  the  country.  These  extinct  craters  are 
distributed  in  two  principal  groups,  one  in  Mandridrano,  about 
forty-five  miles  E.N. E.  of  the  summit  of  Ankaratra,  and  the  other 
in  the  district  of  Betafo,  at  about  the  same  distance  to  the  south- 
west. 

In  the  western  half  of  the  island  sedimentary  rocks  appear  to 
form  the  greater  portion  of  the  comparatively  level  country  of 
which  it  is  composed.  These  consist  of  sandstones,  beds  of  clay 
and  shale,  and  limestones,  together  with  occasional  deposits  of 
lignite.  The  following  is  a  list  given  by  Air.  Baron  of  "  the 
metamorphic  and  sedimentary  strata  of  Madagascar,  so  far  as 
they  are  at  present  known,  referred  to  the  European  standard 
of  geological  chronology."  But  it  must  be  remembered  that 
this  list  refers  chiefly  to  the  north-west  of  the  island,  the  central- 
western  and  south-western  portions  not  having  been  yet 
examined  by  any  competent  geologist.^ 

'  I  am  indebted  for  the  main  facts  in  the  preceding  paragraph  to  a  paper  by 
my  friend  and  brother  missionary,  Rev.  R.  Baron,  F.G.S.,  who  is  our  chief 
authority  on  the  geology  and  petrology  of  Madagascar.  This  paper,  "  Notes 
on  the  Geology  of  Madagascar,"  in  Quar.  Jonrn.  Gcol.  Soc,  May,  1889,  together 
with  a  later  one  in  the  same  journal  (Feb.,  1895),  "  Geological  Notes  of  a  Journey 


I 


374 


MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 


Post-Tertiary  Recent. 
Tertiary     ...  Eocene. 


Cretaceous  I UPP^^- 


(Neocomian 
/Oxfordian. 


Secondary 


J  Lower  Oolite  (Cornbrash,  Brad- 
I    ford  Clay,  Fuller's  Earth). 
^Lias. 


V. 


Palaeozoic 


••{ 


Silurian  ? 
Cambrian  ? 
Archaean. 


I  now  proceed  to  give  a  sketch  of  the  most  interesting  forms 
of  extinct  animal  life  which  have  been  discovered  in  Madagascar, 
most  of  them  by  very  recent  research. 

Mammalia, — It  has  been  for  a  long  time  known  that  the 
living  fauna  of  the  island  is  remarkably  deficient  in  the  most 
characteristic  mammals  of  Africa,  or  indeed  in  any  large 
quadrupeds,  and  that  the  lemurs  and  their  allies  are  very 
numerous  in  species,  and  are  the  most  prominent  and  typical 
forms  of  the  Malagasy  fauna.  And  as  shown  by  the  table  at 
p.  356  of  this  chapter,  bats,  small  species  of  carnivora,  of 
insectivora,  and  of  rodents,  with  one  ungulate  animal  (a  wild 
hog),  compose  the  hundred  and  odd  species  of  the  living 
mammals  of  the  country. 

About  three  years  ago  Mr.  J.  T.  Last,  who  has  been  collecting 
for  some  time  for  the  Hon.  Walter  Rothschild,  discovered  a 
mammalian  skull  of  strange  aspect  in  a  marsh  at  Ambolisatra, 
on  the  south-west  coast  of  Madagascar.  After  an  elaborate 
examination  by  Dr.  C.  J.  Forsyth  Major,  this  has  been  deter- 
mined to  belong  to  a  large  extinct  Lemuroid  animal.  The  skull 
is  much  longer  in  shape,  as  well  as  larger,  than  that  of  any  of  the 
living  Lemuridae,  and  the  animal  was  probably  nearly  three  times 
the  size  of  any  existing  Lemur,  approaching  to  the  dimensions 
of  the  Anthropoid  Apes.  Dr.  Major  has  accordingly  formed  a 
new  family  for  this  aberrant  form  of  Lemuroid,  which  he  has 

in  Madagascar,"  gives  the  fullest  information  yet  obtainable  as  to  Madagascar 
geology.    They  are  illustrated  by  three  geological  maps. 


TPIE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  375 

named  Megaladapis  viadagascariensis  (fam.  Megaladapidae).^ 
From  its  association  with  other  vertebrate  remains  still  to  be 
noticed,  Dr.  Major  believes  that  this  Lemuroid  skull  belongs  to 
a  group  of  animals,  part,  if  not  all,  of  which  have  been  seen  by 
man  at  a  relatively  recent  date. 

Dr.  Major  has  recently  discovered  other  remains  in  Mada- 
gascar of  an  animal  which  appears  to  form  a  link  between  the 
apes  and  the  lemurs,  although  partaking  more  of  the  character 
of  the  former  than  of  the  latter.  Xo  account,  however,  has 
yet  been  published  of  this  discovery. 

In  the  year  1868  the  bones  of  a  small  species  of  hippo- 
potamus were  discovered  by  M.  Grandidier  on  the  south-west 
coast,  and  were  described  under  the  name  of  H.  Lemerlei. 
Several  years  later  the  remains  of  other  hippopotami  w^ere 
discovered  at  Antsirabe,  in  the  central  portion  of  the  island, 
by  the  Rev.  T.  A.  Rosaas,  and  were  described  by  M.  G.  A. 
Guldberg  under  the  name  of  H.  madagascariensis.  And  still 
more  recently,  remains  of  apparently  a  third  species  of  this 
animal  have  been  brought  to  light  on  the  south-west  coast, 
and  this  has  been  named  H.  leptorhyncus.  These  Madagascar 
hippopotami  appear  to  have  been  about  two-thirds  the  size 
of  the  African  species,  and  are  believed  to  have  been  contem- 
poraneous with  the  earliest  human  inhabitants  of  the  island. 

In  the  same  locality  where  the  skull  of  the  gigantic  Lemuroid 
was  found,  Mr.  Last  has  also  discovered  some  bones  of  a  species 
of  sw^ine  (Sus\  as  well  as  of  a  river-hog  {Potaviochoerus),  which 
may  prove  to  be  the  same  as  the  one  now  existing  in  Mada- 
gascar, and  also  numerous  bones  of  a  slender-legged  form  of 
zebu  {Bos). 

From  these  facts  it  appears  that  the  paucity  of  large  in- 
digenous mammals  which  now^  characterises  the  fauna  of 
Madagascar,  was  not  always  a  marked  feature  of  it ;  and 
doubtless  fuller  and  more  systematic  research  will  bring  to 
light  remains  of  many  other  species. 

^  See  Trans.  Roy.  Soc,  vol.  185,  1894,  B.  pp.  15-38,  pi.  5-7. 

I 


376  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Birds, — Forty-five  years  ago  the  scientific  world  was  startled 
by  the  discovery  in  Madagascar  of  the  eggs  and  bones  of  a 
gigantic  bird,  to  which  the  name  of  u^pyornis  maximus  was 
given.  The  bones  showed  that  this  extinct  creature  was  a 
struthious  bird,  apparently  allied  to  the  ostrich  and  the  recently 
exterminated  Dinornis  of  New  Zealand,  but  with  more  massive 
feet  and  leg-bones.  The  eggs  were,  however,  perhaps  the  most 
interesting  relics  of  this  ancient  bird,  for  they  largely  exceed  the 
size  of  any  previously  known  egg,  being  \2\  inches  long  by 
9f  inches  broad,  with  a  capacity  of  more  than  six  of  the  largest 
known  ostrich  eggs. 

During  M.  Grandidier's  explorations  in  Madagascar,  already 
referred  to,  he  discovered  other  bones  of  ^pyornis^  which  were 
eventually  described  as  belonging  to  two  other  species  besides 
maximus^  viz.,         inedius  and  inodestus.    All  these 

remains  were,  up  to  a  recent  date,  known  only  from  the  coast 
regions,  viz.,  south-east,  south,  and  south-west.  But  in  the 
excavations  made  by  the  Rev.  T.  A.  Rosaas  at  Antsirabe,  which 
revealed  the  remains  of  Hippopotamus  just  referred  to,  bones  of 
ySpyornis  were  also  discovered,  and  among  these  were  some  of 
a  fourth  species,  which  was  named  HildebrandtL  More 
recently  still,  further  excavations  at  Antsirabe  and  in  the 
south-west  and  west  have  brought  a  large  quantity  of  other 
material  to  light,  and  from  these  MM.  Milne-Edwards  and 
Grandidier  have  been  able  to  make  a  more  complete  study 
of  the  extinct  birds  of  Madagascar,  and  to  determine  that 
they  belong  to  many  different  species.^    They  say : — 

"  These  various  kinds  of  yEpyornis  constitute  a  family,  repre- 
sented by  very  differing  forms.  At  the  present  time  at  least 
a  dozen  can  be  distinguished,  some  of  large  size,  others  of 
moderate  dimensions.  The  former  had  a  height  of  about  ten 
feet,  while  others  hardly  exceeded  that  of  a  bustard.  Their 
anatomical  characters  justify  their  being  arranged  in  two  genera : 

'  "  Observations  sur  les  /Epyornis  de  Madagascar  "  ;  Coinptcs  rciuiiis,  t.  cxviii. 
January  15,  1894. 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  377 

(i)  that  of  yEpyornis,  with  large  and  massive  legs  ;  and  (2)  that 
of  Mullerornis,  with  slenderer  legs  and  feet,  and  which  much 
resembled  in  their  proportions  the  cassowary  of  New  Guinea 
and  the  apteryx  of  New  Zealand."  The  largest  of  the  species 
of  ^pyornis  has  been  named  ingens^  and  greatly  exceeds 
in  size  maximus, 

"  The  conditions  under  which  the  remains  of  these  birds 
have  been  deposited  seem  to  show  that  they  frequented  the 
margins  of  sheets  of  water,  and  that,  if  they  did  not  swim  there, 
they  kept  in  the  midst  of  the  rushes  bordering  the  lakes  and 
the  rivers.  In  fact,  wherever  they  have  been  obtained,  their 
bones  are  associated  with  those  of  small  hippopotami,  croco- 
diles, and  tortoises,  that  is  to  say,  with  animals  altogether 
aquatic  in  their  habits.  The  ^pyornis  must  usually  have 
lived  in  low-lying  and  frequently  inundated  plains  ;  and  there 
also  they  nested,  as  we  may  infer  from  the  number  of  por- 
tions of  the  skeletons  of  very  young  birds  which  have  been 
found  there  in  abundance." 

Besides  the  remains  of  the  struthious  birds  just  described, 
among  the  bones  from  Antsirabe  some  portions  which  belonged 
to  a  large  rail,  nearly  related  to  Aphanapteryx^  have  been 
recognised  ;  as  well  as  others  of  a  species  of  wild-goose,  but 
much  larger  than  those  of  any  kinds  now  inhabiting  Mada- 
gascar. These  remains  again  show  the  existence  of  extinct 
birds  of  aquatic  habits,  belonging  to  the  same  period  as  the 
^pyornis^  and  living  under  similar  conditions. 

These  large  birds  were  certainly  contemporaneous  with 
Man,  for  there  are  to  be  seen,  on  some  of  their  bones,  some 
deep  and  very  sharply  distinct  notches,  which  were  made  by 
cutting  instruments,  probably  in  removing  the  flesh.  On  the 
femur  of  a  hippopotamus,  of  the  same  date,  is  also  to  be  seen 
a  hollow  cut,  going  through  the  whole  thickness  of  the  bone  and 
evidently  produced  by  human  hands. 

These  discoveries  doubtless  give  promise  of  others  still 
more  important  yet  to  be  made,  which  will  throw  some  light 


378  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

Upon  the  early  history  of  Madagascar,  from  the  point  of  view 
of  physical  geography  and  zoology.  It  is  impossible  not  to 
be  struck  with  the  analogies  which  the  fauna  of  this  island 
presentsjwith  that  of  New  Zealand,  where,  at  a  recent  period, 
there  lived  a  large  number  of  gigantic  birds,  the  Dinornithidae, 
represented  by  more  than  twenty  species.  These  resemblances 
seem  to  indicate  some  former  connection  between  these  islands 
(as  well  as  between  the  islands  of  the  southern  hemisphere 
generally),  now  separated  by  an  immense  extent  of  ocean  ;  and 
this  conclusion  appears  to  agree  with  observations  made  with 
regard  to  the  ancient  fauna  of  the  Madagascar  group  of  islands.^ 

Reptiles. — It  is  well  known  to  students  of  natural  history 
that  on  small  islands  separated  from  each  other  by  nearly  half 
the  circumference  of  the  globe  there  still  exist  gigantic  tortoises. 
These  islands  are  the  Galapagos,  west  of  Ecuador  in  South 
America,  and  the  island  of  Aldabra,  north  of  Madagascar.  On 
the  mainland  of  the  great  African  Island  none  of  these  great 
chelonians  are  now  found  living,  but  recent  research  has  shown, 
as  we  might  have  supposed,  that  they  formed  part  of  the  ancient 
fauna  of  the  country.  It  is  only  owing  to  the  fact  of  Aldabra 
being  uninhabited  by  man  that  these  huge  defenceless  creatures 
have  maintained  their  existence  in  one  of  the  outlying  islands. 
The  Aldabra  tortoises  have  a  carapace  5  ft.  6  in.  long  and 
5  ft.  9  in.  broad,  and  weigh  about  800  lbs.  The  extinct  tortoises 
of  Madagascar  appear  to  have  been  as  large  as  the  ones  now 
living  in  Aldabra  islet,  and  have  been  described  as  of  two 
species,  Testudo  abrupta  and  T.  Grandidieri?  As  already 
mentioned,  their  skeletons,  carapaces,  and  plastrons  have  been 
found  associated  with  remains  of  ^pyornis  and  hippopotamus. 

The  rivers  and  lakes  of  Madagascar  abound  with  crocodiles, 
and  it  is  not  therefore  surprising  that  remains  of  this  reptile 
have  been  found  in  the  Quaternary  deposits  which  have  yielded 

*  The  preceding  paragraphs  are  translated  from  the  paper  of  MM.  Milne- 
Edwards  and  Grandidier  already  cited. 

=•  See  Comptes-rcndus,  vol.  Ixvii,,  1868  ;  vol.  c,  1885. 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  379 

SO  many  relics  of  gigantic  birds,  pachyderms,  and  chelonians. 
M.  Grandidier  says :  "  The  bones  of  crocodiles  which  I  found 
belong  to  a  different  species  from  that  which  now  inhabits  the 
waters  of  Madagascar  {Crocodilus  madagascariensis) ;  for  while 
this  latter  is  remarkable  for  the  slenderness  and  length  of  its 
snout,  and  is  allied  to  the  common  crocodile,  the  fossil  species, 
to  which  we  have  given  the  name  of  Crocodilus  robustus,  has 
hardly  any  nearer  neighbour  than  the  convex-headed  crocodile 
of  India,  or  the  black  crocodile  of  Senegal.  It  is  curious  that 
this  species,  which  I  have  found  fossil  on  the  west  coast  of 
Madagascar,  now  lives  only  in  the  great  lake  of  Alaotra  in 
Antsihanaka,  its  last  refuge,  where  also  it  will  not  long  remain, 
as  this  lake  is  filling  up  by  degrees,  and  its  extent  diminishing 
every  year.  It  was  evidently  a  lacustrine  crocodile,  which  was 
common  in  Madagascar  when  this  island,  extending  far  towards 
the  east,  and  not  having  been  yet  overturned  by  the  granitic 
eruption,  was  covered  by  enormous  lakes  ;  and  here  the  hippo- 
potami, whose  remains  I  have  discovered  in  such  abundance, 
were  found  in  large  numbers."  i 

It  will  have  been  noticed  that  all  the  extinct  animals  which 
have  been  hitherto  described  belong  to  a  very  recent  geological 
period,  all  of  them  probably  having  been  living  during  the 
earliest  human  occupation  of  the  island.  But  recent  research 
has  shown  that  in  a  very  greatly  more  remote  era,  the  Secondary 
or  Mesozoic,  pre-eminently  the  "  Age  of  Reptiles,"  Madagascar, 
in  common  with  other  parts  of  the  world,  also  had  its  huge 
saurians  crawling  over  its  surface,  or  swimming  in  its  waters. 

About  three  years  ago  Mr.  Last  obtained  from  some  Jurassic 
deposits  in  the  north-west  of  Madagascar,  near  the  Bay  of 
Narinda,  vertebrae  and  portions  of  the  limb-bones  of  an  enormous 
terrestrial  Lizard,  as  large,  probably,  says  Dr.  H.  Woodward,  as 
the  Atlantosaurus  of  Marsh  ;  2   two  genera,  if  not  three,  are 

^  See  Comptcs-rciidus,  vol.  Ixxv.,  1872. 

'  Atlantosaurus  was  probably  the  most  gigantic  of  all  these  huge  lizards, 
being  about  eighty  feet  long,  and  having  a  height  of  thirty  feet ! 


380  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

represented,  one  being  like  07'nithopsis  or  Brontosaurus^  In 
a  paper  by  Mr.  R.  Lydekker,  F.R.S.,  contributed  to  the  Quart. 
Journ,  Zool.  Soc.  (August,  1895),  some  of  these  bones  have  been 
described  as  belonging  to  "a  Sauropodous  Dinosaur,"  of  the 
genus  Bothriospondylus,  and  called  by  him  B,  madagascariensis. 
These  remains  belong  to  the  Jurassic  series  of  rocks. 

In  1 89 1  some  fragments  of  the  skull  of  a  reptile  were  dis- 
covered by  the  Rev.  R.  Baron  in  a  tenacious  shelly  limestone 
in  the  north-western  part  of  the  island.  These  have  been  deter- 
mined by  Mr.  R.  Bullen  Newton,  F.G.S.,  to  belong  to  a  reptile 
possesing  crocodilian  affinities,  and  from  its  narrow  and  elongate 
rostrum,  "  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  existing  Gavial 
of  the  Ganges,  though  differing  very  widely  from  it  in  other  and 
more  important  characters.  It  is  not  until  we  go  much  further 
in  time  that  we  find  its  congener  among  the  Mesozoic  crocodiles 
forming  the  family  of  the  Teleosauridae."  Mr.  Newton  regards 
these  remains  as  portions  of  a  new  form,  and  from  them  he 
founds  a  new  species  of  the  genus  Steneosaurus^  which  he  names 
6".  Baroni.  This  genus  has  hitherto  been  known  only  in  British 
and  European  areas,  so  that  the  discovery  of  this  new  species  in 
a  locality  so  far  south  as  Madagascar  is  a  matter  of  very  high 
interest  when  considering  its  geographical  distribution.  From 
the  few  molluscan  shells  associated  with  the  fossil,  it  appears  to 
belong  to  the  Lower  Oolite  age. 

The  above-mentioned  mammals,  birds,  and  reptiles  (twenty- 
six  or  twenty-seven  only  in  number)  comprise  all  that  is  at 
present  known  of  the  ancient  vertebrate  forms  of  life  in  Mada- 
gascar. There  are  doubtless  many  others  yet  to  be  disentombed, 
and  fresh  discoveries  are  sure  to  be  made  on  fuller  investigation 
of  the  country.  It  may  be  confidently  expected  that  the  next 
few  years  will  show  a  great  increase  in  our  knowledge  of  the 
palaeontology  of  this  great  island,  as  well  as  of  its  geology,  for 
the  field  is  very  wide,  and  both  subjects  have  only  been  slightly 
touched  as  yet. 

^  Bvonfosaiirus  was  about  sixty  feet  in  length. 


THE  FAUNA  AND  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  38 1 

A  complete  list  of  all  the  fossils  from  Madagascar  known  up 
to  the  present  date  is  given  by  Mr.  R.  Bullen  Newton  in  a  paper 
in  Quar.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.  (February,  1895).!  These,  omitting  the 
vertebrates  already  described,  number  140,  and  belong  to  the 
Mollusca  in  Quaternary  strata,  to  the  Mollusca  and  Foraminifera 
in  Tertiary  (Eocene),  to  Mollusca,  Echinodermata,  Actinozoa, 
Foraminifera,  and  Plantse  in  the  Secondary  (Cretaceous  and 
Jurassic). 

Let  us  try  to  sum  up  in  a  few  sentences  the  results  of  recent 
research  on  the  ancient  animal  life  of  the  island. 

It  seems  probable  that  Madagascar,  when  the  first  represen- 
tatives of  mankind  occupied  it,  was  a  country  much  more  fully 
covered  by  lakes  and  marshes  than  it  is  at  present.  In  these 
waters,  amid  vast  cane  brakes  and  swamps  of  papyrus  and 
sedge,  wallowed  and  snorted  herds  of  hippopotami  ;  huge 
tortoises  crawled  over  the  low  lands  on  their  margins  ;  tall 
ostrich-like  birds,  some  over  ten  feet  high,  and  others  no  larger 
than  bustards,  stalked  over  the  marshy  valleys ;  great  rails 
hooted  and  croaked  among  the  reeds,  and  clouds  of  large 
geese  and  other  water-fowl  flew  screaming  over  its  lakes ;  on 
the  sandbanks  crocodiles  lay  by  scores  basking  in  the  sun  ; 
great  ape-like  lemurs  climbed  the  trees  and  caught  the  birds ; 
troops  of  river-hogs  swam  the  streams  and  dug  up  roots  among 
the  woods  ;  and  herds  of  slender-legged  zebu-oxen  grazed  on 
the  open  downs.  These  were  the  animals  which  the  first  wild 
men  hunted  with  their  palm-bark  spears,  and  shot  with  their 
arrows  tipped  with  burnt  clay  or  stone.^ 

And  as  we  look  further  back  through  long  past  geological 
ages,  when  the  clays  and  sandstones  of  the  oolite  and  the  white 
masses  of  the  chalk  were  being  deposited  in  the  coral-studded 
tropic  seas  and  archipelagoes  of  Europe  and  other  parts  of  the 

*  And  reproduced  in  Antanlxnanvo  Annual,  xix.,  1895. 

'  The  Vazimba,  the  supposed  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  interior,  are  said  not 
to  have  known  the  use  of  iron,  but  to  have  had  spears  made  of  the  hard,  wiry 
bark  of  the  Anivona  palm,  and  to  have  employed  arrow-heads  made  of  burnt 
clay.    No  flint  weapons  have  yet  been  discovered  in  Madagascar. 


382  MADAGASCAR  BEFORE  THE  CONQUEST. 

world,  and  when  Madagascar  was  probably  no  island,  but  a 
peninsula  of  Eastern  Africa,  the  mist  opens  for  a  moment,  and 
we  see  vast  reptile  forms  dimly  through  the  haze  :  great  slender- 
snouted  Gavials  in  the  streams  and  lakes,  and  huge  Dinosaurs, 
sixty  to  eighty  feet  long,  crawling  over  the  wooded  plains,  and 
tearing  down  whole  trees  with  their  powerful  arms. 

Such  are  some  glimpses  of  the  Madagascar  of  the  past 
which  the  study  of  its  rocks  and  fossils  already  opens  to  the 
mental  eye.  We  may  confidently  look  for  further  light  upon 
the  dim  and  distant  bygone  ages  as  we  learn  more  of  the 
geology  of  the  country.  The  thick  curtain  which  at  present 
shrouds  the  old-world  time  will  be  yet  more  fully  lifted,  and  we 
shall  probably,  ere  many  more  years  have  passed,  be  able  to 
draw  many  more  mental  pictures  of  the  extinct  animal  life  of 
the  great  African  island. 


Zbc  (3re6bam  press 

trXWIK  BBOTHEBS, 
WOKIXG  AND  LONDON. 


X 


